This is a reflection, so please try to write first person. Look at the information I am attaching and reflect on it and answer this questions am asking. I will send in the activity you can also reflect on please. Let the theories be your focus point.Work with the questions as the structure. What did I do? Which is the theories I sent you and the activity I sent too.What did I learn from it? Just use your own idea please.How does that change the way I think- as in what did I think before coming into this unit, experience? Please just imagine yourself like your the one doing the reflection. Also need a reference of peer reviewed. This is Child Abuse unit. Any information, let me know.
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Do not remove this notice. • Theory is an essentia] component of a chHd protection worker':s know]edge base because it can assist with understanding, exp1aining and responding to chHd maltreatment. • There are numerous explanatory theories of chHd abuse and neglect, which have different levels of empirical support. • ChHd and famHy perspectives are essential to theory selection, validation and knowledge generation. 20 GOOD PRACTICE IN CHILD PROTECTION INTRODUCTION In the child protection field, practitioners come into contact with vulnerable children and their families and are often required to make difficult decisions about their wellbeing, needs and care. In order to help make these decisions and offer the most effective responses, a strong and comprehensive knowledge base is required. An essential component of this knowledge base is theory. Child protection practitioners need to make sense of the circum- stances of children and families in order to tailor individualised interventions. Theory can infuse our observations and thinking at both tacit (unconscious) and explicit (conscious) levels {Osmond 2006). The challenge is to use theory as explicitly as possible, so that critical appraisal can occur at the same time as you are assessing, planning and intervening. The theoretical literature on child abuse and neglect is expansive. Different theoretical explanations of child abuse and neglect reflect the considerable research attention given to understanding and responding to child maltreatment. Some theories focus on explaining child abuse and neglect generally, some seek to explain specific types of abuse (such as sexual abuse), whereas others offer ideas on why particular forms of violence may coexist (e.g. child abuse and domestic violence). Some theories focus more on causation (why is this occurring?) whereas others focus on intervention (how should we respond or deal with this?) {Lancaster & Lumb 1999). The aim of this chapter is to provide an overview of the range of different theoretical approaches to understanding or explaining child abuse and neglect. The chapter begins by discussing the meaning of the term 'theory', as this term is differentially used in the litera- ture. The importance of theory-guided practice is then outlined. Generic theories of the causes of child abuse and neglect - categorised as psychological, sociological or multidimen- sional - are outlined and critically evaluated. Following this, theories that seek to explain the causes of particular types of maltreatment are examined (intervention theories and models are then reviewed in Chapter 5). The importance of bringing the client perspective on a situation to the 'theorising table' concludes the chapter. REVISITING 'THEORY' What is it? The term 'theory' has been the topic of much discussion in social work and human services literature. This type of knowledge has received considerable attention because of its alleged lack of use in practice compared to other types of knowledge, such as practice wisdom, skills, or organisational and procedural knowledge. The term has been variously defined, which at times has created confusion about its existence and recognition in professional activity (Pease 1993; Pilalis 1986; Roberts 1990; Smid & van Krieken 1984). For example, theory has been used to describe commonly accepted ways of understanding phenomena, scientific CHAPTER 2: CHILD ABUSE THEORY hypotheses and personally constructed or nai:ve understandings (Olsson & Ljunghill 1997; Roberts 1990). Because of this broad range of definitions, theories are often classified accord- ing to their level. Theories that attempt to explain universal phenomena, social life, human nature or society have been described as 'grand theories' (such as feminism and poststruc- turalism). Mid-range theories offer explanations about specific issues or aspects of society (such as sexual abuse or grief and loss) (Chenoweth & McAuliffe 2005). All theory, whether formal (scientific or research-based) or informal (personally constructed), seeks to understand or make sense of what we experience or observe. Child abuse and neglect has been explained by both grand and mid-range theories, and in this book a selection of the formal theories that are drawn upon in the child protection field are discussed. It will show that, for practition- ers, 'there is nothing so practical as a good theory' (Kurt Lewin, social psychologist} when it comes to understanding and, therefore, effectively responding to child abuse and neglect. Use of theory Although using theory to inform practice may seem basic to good practice, research has repeat- edly found that theory does not routinely guide professional practice in many human services contexts, including child protection (Carew 1979; Drury-Hudson 1999; Osmond & O'Connor 2006; Rosen, Proctor, Morrow-Howell & Staudt 1995). Reasons suggested for this include: • practitioners may have difficulty applying theory to practice because of its tentative or provisional findings: it may offer limited scope in its application and may not be relevant to 'outliers' (situations that differ markedly from the norm) or to complex situations (Roberts 1990} • agencies may not sufficiently encourage (or may discourage} the use o_f theory in practice or may influence workers' practice by favouring efficient administration over theory-guided practice (Tsang 1998) • educationalists have been criticised for not providing adequate preparation for direct practice; not teaching theory integration effectively; and not training students sufficiently to include the process of critical reflection and evidence-based practice in their work (Gambrill1999; Reay 1986). Nevertheless, theory can assist practice in many ways, such as: • ' prediction • hypotheses formation • explanation • directions for good practice • suggesting helpful interventions • communication with others • building rapport with clients (Osmond in press). 21 22 GOOD PRACTICE IN CHILD PROTECTION Theory can strengthen accountability, improve services to clients by moving beyond commonsense or habitual ways of knowing, and encourage knowledge generation or theory building from practice (Healy 2005; Payne 2005). Theory selection Choosing which theory or theories to inform practice can be difficult, because there is a smorgasbord of theory on offer to inform daily work. Practitioners must proactively consider how to select theory so as to optimise outcomes for children and families. On~ way this can be achieved is through critical reflection upon the following questions: • What is my goal with this child or family? What theory might assist in achieving this goal? What purposefs do I have for my intervention? • What is the state of the evidence in relation to this theory? (Healy 2005) • Is the practice setting in which this theory developed relevant to the situation of the child, young person and family I am working with? (Healy 2005) • What are the strengths and weaknesses of this theory? • Why am I favouring one theory over another? What is the rationale for my selection? Thinking about the general points of causation, context and possible outcomes of applying particular theories with children and families may engender increased understanding in both the worker and the family. This will help to determine what may be contextually and person- ally relevant to a situation (Dowling 2006). It is particularly important to take account of differences (e.g. based on culture, religious beliefs, disability or sexuality), as many theories are developed from homogeneous research samples generalised to whole populations, which can limit their validity and relevance. Theory selection will also involve professional and organisational factors (Payne 2005). Professional factors could include congruence with discipline-specific ethics, values and ideology that may heighten awareness about how a theory positions the client, or what discourses or assumptions are privileged. Organisational factors could include working in an organisation that explicitly adopts or excludes a particular theoretical stance (Payne 2005). For example, a therapeutic agency may espouse an attachment perspective. These issues may require critical consideration and discussion with supervisors and colleagues in order to reconcile professional and organisational views with the desire to offer helpful responses to children and families. GENERIC THEORIES OF CHILD ABUSE AND NEGLECT Generic theories on the causes of child abuse and neglect are numerous. Here they are classi- fied as psychological, sociological, and multidimensional theories (see Figure 2.1 ). (For other Psychological Individual Attachment Biological Learning/ Socialisation CHAPTER 2: CHILD ABUSE THEORY ways of classifying theories see Barnett, Miller-Perrin & Perrin 1997; Corby 2000; Lawrence 2004; Tzeng, Jackson & Karlson 1991.) These different ways of explaining child abuse and neglect reflect the multiplicity and diversity of how maltreatment has been understood and researched over time. Many disciplinary areas, such as psychology, social work, medicine, criminology, sociology, psychiatry and others have contributed to the body of theoretical knowledge on child abuse and neglect (Barnett, Miller-Perrin & Perrin 1997). Some of these theories are micro-focused (that is, on the individual or specific family members), whereas others have a broader, macro-orientation (that is, on the impact of social structures and the recognition of external pressures on communities and families). The methodological approaches that have generated this theorising are also diverse and encompass the study of clinical samples, experiments, surveys, cross-sectional data, government reports, administra- tive data, longitudinal research and interviews (Barnett, Miller-Perrin & Perrin 1997). Each methodological approach has its strengths and weaknesses, which require critical considera- tion when determining relevance, applicability and transferability to individual situations and contexts. The theories outlined in this chapter do not provide an exhaustive account of all theories available (see Tzeng, Ja~kson & Karlson 1991 for a comprehensive review). The aim is to provide an overview of the theories that are commonly drawn upon in the literature and the field. Psychological theories Psychological theories are micro-orientated theories that explain the causes of child abuse and neglect as a result of either some personal or internal factor within the individual, or learning to be violent based on observing or living in a violent environment (Barnett, Miller-Perrin & Perrin 1997; Corby 2000). There are four psychological theories discussed in this chapter: individual psychology, attachment theory, biological