This is a midterm essay. You have to use the Theories from the persuasion chapter from chapter 1 to chapter 8 (Use as many as you can) to explain what the attitude is.. I uploaded the summary file of our class textbook. Feel free to contact me any time if there is any questions.
Essays General Considerations and Requirements for the Essays These are take-home essay questions. This implies that there are no “right” or “wrong” answers to the questions. Rather, what is required that you THINK about the course, the readings, class discussions, and the lectures, synthesize ideas, take positions on critical issues, reason through the available evidence, and construct the best possible case for the positions you take. This last point is perhaps the most important: There is a significant difference between holding an opinion and constructing an intellectually defensible, well-argued case for a position. A well-defended case in support of a position identifies issues, defines key concepts, details arguments, marshals the available evidence, cites relevant readings, deals critically with potential objections, and makes careful, qualified claims. Moreover, a well-defended case is presented in the framework of a lucid and technically solid essay (i.e., a clear thesis or statement of purpose in the introduction; a preview of major points to be developed in the body of the essay; well-developed main points connected by internal summaries and transitions; a conclusion that summarizes and ties things together; good style, diction, and sentence structure; flawless spelling, etc.). Thus, although there are no right or wrong answers to this examination, there are clearly better and worse answers. The format requirements are as below. 1. There is a firm page limit, and sometimes you should work to economize your style so that the questions can be answered in the allotted space. 2. The essay should be typed, double-spaced, one-inch margins, minimum of a 10-font and maximum of a 12-font. 3. Don’t forget the page numbers. 4. References to specific sources must be accompanied by appropriate citation. 5. APA (6th ed.) format for all citations. 6. A reference list should be at the end of essay. 7. Each essay should have a title page following APA specifications. 8. The title page and reference list DO NOT count as a part of the page limit; that limit pertains only to the text of your essay. Essay #1- Due Tuesday, March 1st. What are attitudes and why are they important in the study of persuasion and marketing? In responding to this question, include some discussion of relevant definitions, conceptual models of attitudes (including the structure and function of attitudes), means of assessing attitudes, and relationships of attitudes to various independent and dependent variables of interest. (5pages, cover page and the list of references) Summary Persuasion: Theory and Research - Daniel J. O\'Keefe written by pauliendh The Marketplace to Buy and Sell your Study Material On Stuvia you will find the most extensive lecture summaries written by your fellow students. Avoid resits and get better grades with material written specifically for your studies. www.stuvia.com Downloaded by: beomjookim |
[email protected] Distribution of this document is illegal Chapter1 Definitionshavefuzzyedges(applicationoftheconceptisarguable). Itispossibletoclarifyaconceptwithouthavingtobecommittedtoasharp-edgeddefinitionof theconcept.>Byfocusingonthesharedfeaturesofparadigmcasesoftheconcept. Paradigmcasesofaconcept:instancesthatnearlyeveryonewouldagreewereinstancesofthe concept. Persuader Persuadee:theonewhoispersuaded Featuresofparadigmcasesofpersuasion: 1. Whenwesaythatonepersonpersuadedanother,weidentifyasuccessfulattemptto influence.(Successisembeddedintheconceptofpersuasion) 2. Inparadigmcasesofpersuasion,thepersuaderintendstoinfluencethepersuadee. 3. Measureoffreedom(freewill,freechoice,voluntaryact)onthepersuadee’spart. 4. Theeffectsareachievedthroughcommunication(andperhapsespeciallybylanguage) 5. Involveachangeinthementalstateofthepersuadee. Thusevenwhenapersuader’saimistoinfluencewhatpeopledo(whatproductstheybuy),at leastinparadigmcasesofpersuasionthataimisaccomplishedbychangingwhatpeoplethink (whattheythinkoftheproduct). Definitionofpersuasion:asuccessfulintentionaleffortatinfluencinganother’smentalstate throughcommunicationinacircumstanceinwhichthepersuadeehassomemeasureof freedom. Attitude:anevaluativejudgmentof(reactionto)anobject. Attitudeisthemostinvolvedmentalstateinpersuasion.Attitudesrepresentstableevaluations thatcaninfluencebehaviour,theyareacommonpersuasivetarget. Attitudesareimportantforpersuasion. Explicitmeasures Simple,straightforward,easytoadminister,easytoconstruct.But:itisjustanestimate (schatting)oftheattitude.Achterliggenderedenenkomennietaanbod. - Semanticdifferentialevaluativescales Respondendsratetheattitudeobjectonanumberof7-pointbipolarscalesthatareend- anchoredbyevaluativeadjectivepairs(good-bad,positive-negative) - Single-itemattitudemeasures Asinglequestionnaireitemthatasksfortherelevantjudgment(extremelyfavourable– extremelyunfavourable).Potentiallyweakreliability.Apersonresponsetoasingle attitudequestionmaybenotasgoodastheresponseon3or4itemsallgettingthesame thing. (e.g.publicopinionsurveys) Stuvia.com - The Marketplace to Buy and Sell your Study Material Downloaded by: beomjookim |
[email protected] Distribution of this document is illegal https://www.stuvia.com Stuvia.com - The Marketplace to Buy and Sell your Study Material Quasi-explicitmeasures Providemoreinformation.But:maytakemoretimetoadminister. - Pairedcomparison Therespondentisaskedaseriesofquestionsabouttherelativeevaluationofeachofa numberofpairsofobject. - Thurstone&Likert Therespondentsattitudeisderivedfromagreementordisagreementwithstatements thatareratherobviouslyattitude-relevant. *Thurstone:alistofstatementsandaskedtochecktheoneswithwhichtheyagree *Likert:Thestrengthofagreementisassessedthroughsomeappropriatescale(e.g.this bankisreliable,+3stronglyagreetm-3stronglydisagree) Itisimportanttoselectstatementsthathelpcontainingtherightinformation.Ifyouwantto learnaboutattitudestowardstheUnitedNations,‘’baseballisbetterthanfootball’’isnotagood statement. Rankingtechniquescangiveinformationaboutalargenumberofattitudesandprovideinsight aboutcomparativeevaluations. Implicitmeasures Attitudesarebeingassessed.Mostattractiveincircumstancesinwhichonefearsrespondents maydistort(verdraaien)theirtrueattitudes. - Autonomicresponses(e.g.heartrate) - Measuresofbrainactivity - Primingmeasures(examiningthespeedwithwhichpeoplemakeevaluatejudgments whenthosejudgmentsareprecededbytheattitudeobject) - Implicitassociationtest(attitudesareassessedbyexaminingthestrengthofassociation betweenattitudeobjectsandevaluativecategories) - Etc. Attitudeengedragstaanmetelkaarinverband.Changingaperson’sbehaviour..changethat person’sattitude. Moderatingfactorsofattitudesandbehaviourconsistency: - Thedegreetowhichthebehaviouriseffortfulordifficult - Theperceivedrelevanceoftheattitudetothebehaviour - Attitudeaccessibility - Attitudinalambivalence(tegenstrijdigheid) - Havingavestedinterestinaposition - Theextentofattitude-relevantknowledge - Etc. Correspondenceofmeasures Onefactorthatinfluencestheobservedconsistencybetweenanattitudinalmeasureanda behaviouralmeasureisthenatureofthemeasuresinvolved. Attitudinalmeasuresandbehaviouralmeasuresarelikelytoberathermorestronglyassociated whenthereisasubstantialcorrespondencebetweenthetwomeasuresandunderscorethe foolishnessofsupposingthatasinglespecificbehaviourwillnecessarilyortypicallybestrongly associatedwithaperson’sgeneralattitude. Stuvia.com - The Marketplace to Buy and Sell your Study Material Downloaded by: beomjookim |
[email protected] Distribution of this document is illegal https://www.stuvia.com https://www.stuvia.com Stuvia.com - The Marketplace to Buy and Sell your Study Material Directexperience Asecondfactorinfluencingattitude-behaviourconsistencyisthedegreeofdirectexperience withtheattitudeobject.Attitudesbaseondirectbehaviouralexperiencewiththeattitudeobject havebeenfoundtobemorepredictiveoflaterbehaviourtowardtheobjectthanareattitudes basedonindirectexperience. Example:trialexperiencewithaproduct(directexperience)–exposuretoadvertisingmessages aboutaproduct(indirectexperience) Butdirectexperiencestrengthensbothpositiveandnegativeattitudes. (Alsjeietsslechtsovereenvoedingsproducthebtgelezen,zaljeheteerderkopendanwanneer jealhebtgeproefddathetnietlekkeris.) Encouragingattitude-consistentbehaviour Sometimesapersuaderschallengeisnottochangesaperson’sattitudebuttogetthatpersonto actontheirattitude. - Enhanceperceivedrelevance Encouragepeopletoseetheirattitudesasrelevanttotheirbehaviouralchoices(control conditionvs.experimentalcondition) ‘’Youmightnothaverealizedit,butthisreallyisanopportunitytoactconsistentlywith yourattitude’’ - Inducefeelingsofhypocrisy Whenpersonshavebeenhypocritical,onewayofencouragingattitude-consistent behaviourcanbetodrawperson’sattentiontothehypocrisy.Leadspeopletorecognize theirhypocrisy. ‘’Youhaven’tbeenactingconsistentlywithyourattitude,buthereisanopportunitytodo so’’ - Encourageanticipationoffeelings Invitepeopletoconsiderhowtheyfeeliftheyfailtoactconsistentlywiththeirattitudes (regretandguilt). ‘’Hereisanopportunitytoactconsistentlywithyouattitude–andyouthinkhowbad youwillfeelifyoudon’t.’’ Attitudesarenottheonlypossiblefocusforpersuasiveefforts. - Sometimesthefocusofapersuasiveeffortwillbesomedeterminantofattitude,suchas aparticularbeliefabouttheattitudeproduct(e.g.thataproductisenvironmentally friendly) - Sometimespersuaderswanttoinfluencesomepropertyofanattitudeotherthanits valence(negativeorpositive)andextremity>bijv:thesalience(prominence, accessibility),theconfidencewithwhichitisheldorhowitislinkedtootherattitudes. (e.g.peoplealreadylikeaproductthepersuasivetaskistoensurethatthoseattitudes aresalient(activated)attherighttime,forexampleremindingpeopleoftheirattitudes) Attitudestrengthamixtureof: - Persistence–strongerattitudesaremorepersistencethanweakerones - Resistance–strongerattitudesaremoreresistanttochanges - Impactoninformationprocessingandjudgments–strongerattitudesaremorelikelyto affectsuchprocesses - Impactonbehaviour–strongerattitudeswillhavemoreeffectonbehaviour Attitudechangewilloften,butnotalways,beapersuadersgoal. Stuvia.com - The Marketplace to Buy and Sell your Study Material Downloaded by: beomjookim |
[email protected] Distribution of this document is illegal https://www.stuvia.com https://www.stuvia.com Stuvia.com - The Marketplace to Buy and Sell your Study Material Chapter2:SocialJudgmentTheory(SJT) Thecentraltenetofsocialjudgmenttheoryisthatmessagesproduceattitudechangethrough judgmentalprocessesandeffects.Morespecifically,theclaimisthattheeffectofapersuasive communicationdependsuponthewayinwhichthereceiverevaluatesthepositionitadvocates. Attitudechangeisseenasatwo-stepprocess:thereceivermakesanassessment(beoordeling) ofwhatpositionisbeingadvocatedbythemessage,theattitudechangeoccursafterthis judgment—withtheamountanddirectionofchangedependentonthejudgment. ❖JudgmentsofAlternativePositionsonanIssueAperson’sreactiontoapersuasivemessage dependsontheperson’sjudgmentofthepositionbeingadvocated,thenitisimportanttobe abletoaccesspersons’judgmentsofthevariouspossibleoptions. TheOrderedAlternativesQuestionnaire Providestherespondentwithasetofstatements,eachrepresentingadifferentpointofviewin theissuebeingstudied.Arrangedinorderfromoneextremetotheother>ordered alternatives. Therespondentisaskedtoindicatethestatementsthatareacceptableorunacceptable,some canbeneither.Theseresponsesaresaidtoformtheperson’sjudgmentallatitudesonthatissue. Therangeofpositionsthattherespondentfindsacceptableformtherespondent’slatitudeof acceptance,unacceptable>thelatitudeofrejectionandneitheracceptsorreject>the latitudeofnoncommitment.SJTproposesthatthestructureofthejudgmentallatitudes systematicallyvariesdependingonone’slevelofego-involvementwiththeissue. Latitude=breedtegraad TheConceptofEgo-Involvement Apersonmightbesaidtobeego-involvedwhentheissuehaspersonalsignificancetothe individual,whentheperson’sstandontheissueiscentraltohisorhersenseofself,whenthe issueisimportanttotheperson,whenthepersontakesastrongstandontheissueetc.SJTdoes suggestthatego-involvementandpositionextremitywillbeempiricallyrelated,however,such thatthosewithmoreextremepositionsonanissuewilltendtobemoreego-involvedinthat issue. Ego-InvolvementandtheLatitudes Theclaimisthatasone’slevelofego-involvementincreases,thesizeofthelatitudeofrejection willalsoincreaseandthesizesofthelatitudesofacceptanceandnoncommitmentwilldecrease. MeasuresofEgo-Involvement Severaldifferenttechniqueshavebeendevisedforassessingego-involvement,examples: - SizeoftheOrderedAlternativesLatitudeofRejection:latitudeofrejectionincrease, latitudeofacceptanceandnoncommitmentdecrease.Latitudeofnoncommitment shrinksmorethanthelatitudeofacceptance.Thisregularityhassometimesledtothe suggestionthatthesizeofthelatitudeofnoncommitmentmightserveasameasureof ego-involvement,butthesizeofthelatitudeofrejectionisthefarmorefrequently studiedindex. - OwnCategoriesProcedure:participantsarepresentedwithalargenumberof statements(60ormore)onthetopicandaskedtosortstatementsintohowevermany categoriestheythinknecessarytorepresenttherangeofpositionsontheissue.Highly involvedparticipants>fewercategories.Thefewercategoriescreated,thegreaterthe degreeofego-involvement. Stuvia.com - The Marketplace to Buy and Sell your Study Material Downloaded by: beomjookim |
[email protected] Distribution of this document is illegal https://www.stuvia.com https://www.stuvia.com Stuvia.com - The Marketplace to Buy and Sell your Study Material ❖ReactionstoCommunications AssimilationandContrastEffects Anassimilationeffectissaidtooccurwhenareceiverperceivesthemessagetobeadvocating apositionclosertohisorherownpositionthanitactuallydoes;involvesthereceiver minimizingthedifferencebetweenthemessage’sandreceiver’sposition.Acontrasteffectis saidtooccurwhenareceiverperceivesthemessagetobeadvocatingapositionfartheraway fromhisorherpositionthanitactuallydoes;involvesthereceiver’sexaggeratingthe differencesbetweenthemessage’sandreceiversposition. Theperceivedpositionofpersuasivecommunicationmaybedifferentforpersonswithdiffering standsontheissue.Assimilationandcontrasteffectsappeartobemagnifiedbyego-involvement - Receiversinvolvementincreases>greaterdegreeofperceptualdistortion(vervorming). - Higherego-involvement>greatertendencytowardperceptualdistortion. AttitudeChangeEffects Acommunicationthatisperceivedtoadvocateapositionthatfallsinthelatitudeofacceptance ornoncommitmentwillproduceattitudechangeintheadvocated(message)direction,buta communicationthatisperceivedtoadvocateapositionthatfallsinthelatitudeofrejectionwill producenoattitudechangeandmayevenprovoke“boomerang”(oppositemessage)attitude change. Inverted-Ucurve:relatingdiscrepancy(tegenstrijdigheid)toattitudechange. Effectivepersuasionrequiresknowingmorethanthereceiver’smostpreferredposition;one needstoalsoknowthestructureofthejudgmentallatitude.Apersuasivemessagecanfallin one’slatitudeofacceptancebuttheotherpersonslatitudeofrejection,eventhoughtheyhave thesamemostpreferredpositionontheissue. AssimilationandContrastEffectsReconsidered Theattitude-changeprinciplesrefertowhatpositionthemessageisperceivedtoadvocate. Assimilationandcontrasteffectsreducetheeffectivenessofpersuasivemessages. - TheImpactofAssimilationandContrastEffectsonPersuasion:anassimilation effectwillreducetheperceiveddiscrepancybetweenmessage’sviewandreceivers position+itwillreducetheamountofattitudechange. Persuaderscanminimizeassimilationandcontrasteffectsbybeingclearabouttheir positiononthepersuasiveissueathand.Onlyrelativelyambiguouscommunicationsare subjecttoassimilationandcontrasteffects.ThusSJTemphasizesforpersuadersthe importanceofmakingone’sadvocatedpositionclear. - AmbiguityinPoliticalCampaigns:onthetopiconwhichcandidatesseekpersuasion, namelywhotovotefor,candidatesobviouslytakeclearposition.Candidatesdo sometimesadoptambiguouspositionson“campaignissues”.Suchambiguitywould encourageassimilationandcontrasteffects,therebydamagethecandidate’schancesof changinganyone’smindaboutthatissue.Butusually,candidateshopetoencourage voterstobelievethatthecandidate’sviewonaissueisthesameasthevoter’sview. AdaptingPersuasiveMessagetoRecipientsUsingSocialJudgmentTheory Onerecurringthemeintheoreticalanalysesofpersuasionistheideatomaximizeeffectiveness, persuasivemessagesshouldbeadaptedtofittheaudience.Thisespeciallymeansadapting Stuvia.com - The Marketplace to Buy and Sell your Study Material Downloaded by: beomjookim |
[email protected] Distribution of this document is illegal https://www.stuvia.com https://www.stuvia.com Stuvia.com - The Marketplace to Buy and Sell your Study Material messagestotherecipient’sjudgmentallatitudes.SJTalsoplainlysuggeststhatmessagesneedto beadaptedtotheaudience’slevelofego-involvement. ❖CriticalAssessmentSeveralweaknessesinSJTandresearchhavebecomeapparent: TheConfoundingofInvolvementWithOtherVariables Oneweaknessistheuseofparticipantsfrompreexistinggroupsthoughttodifferin involvement.Thepersonsselectedtoserveashigh-involvementparticipantsdifferedfromthe low-involvementparticipantsnotjustininvolvementbutinotherwaysaswell.Differencesin forexampleextremeattitudesbyhigh-involvementparticipants,age,educationalachievement, etc. AccordingtoSJT,ego-involvementandpositionextremityaredistinctconcepts. TheConceptofEgo-InvolvementofEgo-Involvement Ego-involvementrunstogetherwithanumberofdistinctconceptsinanunsatisfactorymanner. Itispossibletodistinguishcommitmenttoaposition,importanceoftheissue,personal relevance,andsoforth,andhenceaclearunderstandingoftherolestheseplayinpersuasion willrequireseparatetreatmentofeach. - Icanholdabelieveintensely,eventhoughtheissueisn’timportanttome(theearthis round) - Anissuemaynotbepersonalrelevantbutstillbestronglycommittedtoapositionon thatissue(abortion) - Icanholdabelievestrongly,eventhoughthatbeliefisn’tcentraltomyself-concept (aboutthesuperiorityofasoccerteam) TheMeasuresofEgo-Involvement Researchconcerningthecommonmeasuresofego-involvement(latitudeofrejectioninthe OrderedAlternativequestionnaireandthenumberofcategoriescreatedintheOwnCategories procedure)hasrevealedsomeworrisomefindings: - Themeasuresarenotverystronglycorrelatedwitheachother.Normallytheyare.E.g. negativecorrelated:somethingincreases,somethingelseshoulddecrease.Thedifferent measuresofinvolvementcannotallbemeasuringthesamething. - Themeasuresdonotdisplaytheexpectedpatternsofassociationwithothervariables. Therearegoodgroundforconcernabouttheadequacy(voldoendheid)andmeaningofthe commonmeasuresofego-involvement.Expected>giventhelackofclarityoftheconcept. Stuvia.com - The Marketplace to Buy and Sell your Study Material Downloaded by: beomjookim |
[email protected] Distribution of this document is illegal https://www.stuvia.com https://www.stuvia.com Stuvia.com - The Marketplace to Buy and Sell your Study Material Chapter3:FunctionalApproachestoAttitude Themosteffectivetechniqueforchanginganattitudemayvarydependingontheattitude’s function. ❖AClassicFunctionalAnalysis Katz(1960)proposedfourattitudefunctions—concreteexampleofafunctionalanalysisof attitudes.Fourattitudefunctions: - Utilitarian:maximizerewardsandminimizepunishments. - Ego-defensive:defendingone’sself-image;removingthreatstotheegoorgivingpeople insightintotheirmotivationaldynamics. - Value-expressive:gettingsatisfactionsfromholdingandexpressingattitudesthatreflect theircentralvaluesandself-images. - Knowledge:reflectstheroleofattitudesinorganizingandunderstandinginformation andevents.E.gtounderstandcomplexpoliticalsituations:identifythegoodguysand thebadguys. Theanalysisdoesnotclaimthattherecommendedmeansofchangingeachtypeofattitudewill beguaranteedtobesuccessful,butonlythatagivenattitudetypeismorelikelytobechanged whenapproachedwiththerightmeansofinfluence. ❖SubsequentDevelopments IdentifyingGeneralFunctionsofAttitude Social-adjustivefunction:attitudeshelppeopleadjusttosocialsituationsandgroups;“allow themtofitintoimportantsocialsituationsandallowthemtointeractsmoothlywiththeir peers”.Therearemoreattitudefunctions(p.37)butconsensusislacking.Amoregeneraland wideraccepteddistinctionoffunctionaltypologiesis: Symbolicfunction:focusonthesymbolicassociationsoftheobject.Expressingmoralbeliefs, symbolizingsignificantvalues,projectingself-imagesetc. Instrumentalfunction:focusontheessentialpropertiesoftheobject.Summarizingthedesirable andundesirableaspectsofanobject. E.g.topic:guncontrolinVS.Symbolicfunction:beliefssuchas‘’itrepresentsprogresstowarda morecivilizedworld’’.Instrumentalfunction:‘’Itwillreducecrimebecausecriminalswontbe abletogetagunsoeasily’’. Itispossibleforpeopletohaveamixtureoftheseattitudesfunctionsandtheycanalsochange bytime. AssessingtheFunctionofaGivenAttitude Givenatypologyofattitudefunctions,thequestionthatnaturallyarisesishowonecantellwhat functionanindividual’sattitudeisserving.Onerecurring(terugkerende)challengefacing functionalattitudetheorieshasbeentheassessmentofattitudefunctions: - Coding(classifying)relevantfree-responsedata(datafromopen-endedquestions). - Theuseofaquestionnairewithstandardizedscaleresponseitems. - Usingproxyindicessuchaspersonalitycharacteristicstostandinformoredirect assessmentoffunctions.Self-monitoringreferstothecontrolofone’sselfpresentation. Stuvia.com - The Marketplace to Buy and Sell your Study Material Downloaded by: beomjookim |
[email protected] Distribution of this document is illegal https://www.stuvia.com https://www.stuvia.com Stuvia.com - The Marketplace to Buy and Sell your Study Material High-selfmonitors:areconcernedabouttheimagetheyprojectandtailortheirconduct tofittoparticularcircumstances(productimageandfavorsocial-adjustivefunctions) e.g.‘’IguessIputonashowtoimpressothers.’’ Willlikelystress(benadruk)theimage-relatedaspectsoftheproduct>becauseof social-adjustivefunction. Low-selfmonitors:arelessconcernedabouttheirprojectedimageandmoldtheir behaviortofitinnerstates(productqualityandfavorvalue-expressivefunctions) e.g.‘’Ihavetroublechangingmybehaviortosuitdifferentpeople.’’ Willlikelyfocusonwhethertheproduct’scharacteristicsandqualitiesmatchthe personscriteria>valueexpressivefunctions. InfluencesonAttitudeFunction Avarietyoffactorsmightinfluencethefunctionthatagivenattitudeserves,mentionable: - IndividualDifferences:differentpersonscanfavordifferentattitudesfunctions(e.g. differentpeoplecanhavedifferentreasonsforvolunteering) - AttitudeObject:thefunctionofanattitudetowardanobjectmayalsobeshapedbythe natureoftheobjectbecauseobjectscandifferentiallylendthemselvestoattitude functions.(e.g.attitudeairco>‘’keepstheaircool.’’Thisobjectencourageoneattitude function>unifunctional.Attitudecar>‘’providesreliabletransportation’’instrumental function+‘’lookssexy’’symbolicfunction>multifunctional) - SituationalVariations:differentsituationscanprovokedifferentattitudefunctions; attitudefunctionsmayvarydependingonfeaturesoftheimmediatesituation. AdaptingPersuasiveMessagestoRecipients:FunctionMatching Thepersuasivemessagesshouldbeadaptedtofittheaudience.Thisgeneralideaisconcretized asthematchingofthepersuasiveappealtothefunctionalbasisoftherecipient’sattitude. •ThePersuasiveEffectsofMatchedandMismatchedAppeals Matchedappealsaremorepersuasivethanmismatchedappeals.Differentaspectsofaproduct appealtodifferenttypesofpeople;imageoftheproduct-asocialadjustiveappeal,andquality oftheproduct-avalueexpressiveappeal.Highself-monitorsreactmorefavorablytoimage thanquality.Theoppositeforlowself-monitors. •ExplainingtheEffectsofFunctionMatching Whyarefunction-matchedappealstypicallymorepersuasivethanunmatchedappeals?The answerisnotentirelyclear,buttherearetwobroadpossibilities - Functionallymatchedappealssimplyspeaktoareceiver’spsychologicalneedsinways thatunmatchedappealsdonot. - Function-matchedmessagesareprocessedmorecarefullythanmismatchedmessages. ❖CommentaryGeneralityandSpecificityinAttitudeFunctionTypologies Thereisnotyetaconsensus(overeenstemming)onanysuchsetoffunctions,andperhapsthere neverwillbe.However,functionalanalysiscanstillbeusedinilluminatingattitudesand persuasionprocesses,evenwithoutsomeuniversalschemeofattitudefunctions. Stuvia.com - The Marketplace to Buy and Sell your Study Material Downloaded by: beomjookim |
[email protected] Distribution of this document is illegal https://www.stuvia.com https://www.stuvia.com Stuvia.com - The Marketplace to Buy and Sell your Study Material FunctionalConfusions SomeFunctionalDistinctions Thereissomeunderlyingfogginessintheconceptualizationofattitudefunctions.Thiscanbe displayedbyconsideringthattherearedistinctionsamong: - Thefunctionsofanattitude.E.g.Johnhasunfavorableviewsaboutminorities.Having thatattitudemakeshimfeelbetterabouthimself. - Thefunctionsofexpressinganattitude.E.g.Johnexpressingthatattitudemightservea social-adjustivefunction>fittinginwithpeoplewithsimilarattitudes. - Thefunctionsoftheattitudeobject.Functionsofanattitude(whattheevaluationdoes) aredifferentfromfunctionsofanobject(whattheobjectdoes). Conflating(samenvallen)theFunctions:thesethreeelementsarecommonlyconflatedintheory andresearchonattitudefunctions.Theelementsarenotcarefullydistinguished. ReconsideringtheAssessmentandConceptualizationofAttitudeFunction AssessmentofAttitudeFunctionReconsidered:theassessmentsmaymostdirectlyreflectnot thefunctionservedbytherespondent’sattitudebutrathertherespondent’sperceptionsofthe functionsservedbytheobjectandthereforetherespondent’sperceptionofwhatisvaluable abouttheobject.(e.g.askingpeople‘’WhatsrightorwrongaboutX>variedanswers> differencesinwhatpeoplevalue). High-andlow-selfmonitorswantdifferentthingsfromtheirconsumerproducts,butbothof themusestheirattitudestoidentifygoodandbadproductsforthem. E.g.attitudefunctionsofexercise Utilitarian:‘’Wouldhelpmereducestress’’ Social-identity:‘’Wouldhelpmeimprovemysocialrelationships’’ Self-esteemmaintenance:‘’Wouldhelpmelooseweight’’ UtilitarianandValue-ExpressiveFunctionsReconsidered:againstthisbackdrop,itmaybeuseful toreconsiderhowthesefunctionshavebeenconceptuallydifferentiated.Value-Expressive attitudes>abstract+prosocial.Utilitarianattitudes>concrete+self-enhancing(verbeteren). E.g.whethertomakeacharitabledonation Value-expressiveattitude:‘’Theimportanceofhelpingothers’’ Utilitarianattitude:‘’Whethertheycanaffordtodonate’’ >Bothfunctionscanbeseentodistinguishcasesonthebasisofperson’svalues,notonthebasis ofattitudefunction. MaioandOlsen>goal-expressiveattitudes:value-expressiveandutilitarianintoonefunctional category. PersuasionandFunctionMatchingRevisited Existingresearchconcerningattitudefunctionsandpersuasiveappealsappearstobewell capturedbytwocoreideas. 1. Whatisvaluedvaries.Differentpersonscanhavedifferentvalues,differenttypesof objectsarecharacteristicallyvaluedfordifferentreasons,andassituationsvarysocan thesalienceofdifferentvalues. Stuvia.com - The Marketplace to Buy and Sell your Study Material Downloaded by: beomjookim |
[email protected] Distribution of this document is illegal https://www.stuvia.com https://www.stuvia.com Stuvia.com - The Marketplace to Buy and Sell your Study Material 2. Persuasivemessagesaremoreeffectivewhentheyengagewhatpeoplevaluethanwhen theydonot. RevivingtheIdeaofAttitudeFunctions Thevalue-basedreframingofattitudefunctionsfocusesonlyontheobjectappraisal(taxatie) attitudefunction.Butoverlookstheself-maintenanceattitudefunction>Katzcalleditego- defensivefunction(afunctionofanattitudenotofanattitudeobject) Thereisagoodreasontowanttokeepsomeversionoftheideaofdifferentattitudefunctions, asillustratedbytheapparentusefulnessofacontrastbetweenobject-appraisalfunctionsand self-maintenancefunctions.Butiftheideaofattitudefunctionistoberevived(nieuwleven ingeblazen),aconsistentandclearfocusonthefunctionsofattitudeswillbeneeded, accompaniedbyattentiontothecontinuingchallengeofattitudeunctionassessment. Chapter4:Belief-BasedModelsofAttitude Thecentralthemeoftheseapproachesisthatone’sattitudetowardanobjectisafunctionofthe beliefsthatonehasabouttheobject.Variationsinthisgeneralapproach: - Differencesinwhatfeaturesofbeliefsareseentocontributetoattitude - Differencesinhowbeliefsareseentocombinetoyieldanattitude ❖SummativeModelofAttitude TheModel Thismodelisbasedontheclaimthatone’sattitudetowardanobjectisafunctionofone’s salientbeliefsabouttheobject.Apersonmayhavealargenumberofbeliefsaboutanobject,but atanygiventimeonlysomeofthemmightbesalient(prominent).Thosedetermineone’s attitude.Themodeldistinguishes: - Beliefstrength:howstrongsomeone’ssalientbeliefsaboutanobjectare(likely-unlikely, true-false) - Beliefevaluation:theevaluationofthosebeliefs,sortofsomeone’sopinionofthese beliefs(good-bad,favorable-unfavorable). Accordingtothisformulapeoplecanhavedifferentbeliefsandstillhavethe sameattitude,becausestrengthandevaluationdiffer. A:attitudetowardtheobject B:strengthofagivenbelief(hoezeerjedenktdatietsbestaat) E:evaluationofagivenbelief(watjedaarvervolgensdanvanvind) Stigma:indicatesthatonesumsacrosstheproductsofthebeliefstrengthandbeliefevaluation ratingsforeachbelief.5salientbeliefsaboutanobject,theattitudeestimateisgivenby:b1e1+ b2e2+b3e3+b4e4+b5e5 bixei=biei(e.g.-3x+3=-9) AdaptingPersuasiveMessagestoRecipientsBasedontheSummativeModel Themostcommonwaysofpersuadingothersisbymakingargumentsthatchangethe recipient’sbeliefsinsomeway.Thesummativemodelofattitudepointstoanumberof alternativestrategiesforinfluencingattitudethisway—andprovideasystemicwayofadapting persuasivemessagestoaudiencesbyidentifyingplausiblefoci(focus)forpersuasiveappeals. Stuvia.com - The Marketplace to Buy and Sell your Study Material Downloaded by: beomjookim |
[email protected] Distribution of this document is illegal https://www.stuvia.com https://www.stuvia.com Stuvia.com - The Marketplace to Buy and Sell your Study Material AlternativePersuasiveStrategies Threebroadwaysinwhichattitudemightbechanged: - Theevaluationofanexistingsalientbeliefmightbechanged>existingpositive/ negativebeliefevenmorepositively/negativelyevaluated - Thestrength(likelihood)ofanexistingsalientbeliefmightbechanged.E.g.trythe weakenthestrengthofanexistingnegativebelief. - Thesetofsalientbeliefsmightbechanged>addanewbeliefoftheappropriatevalence ortochangetherelativesalienceofexistingbeliefs. IdentifyingFociforAppeals Identifyingwhatkindsofappealswilllikelybemostappropriateforinfluencingagivenmessage recipient.Thesummativemodelofattitudeoffersaframeworkwithinwhichpersuaderscan thinksystematicallyaboutwhichpersuasiveappealstomake.Insteadofselectingarguments haphazardly(lukraak)andhopingtostumbleintoaneffectiveappeal,persuaderscan methodicallyidentifythemostlikelyavenuestopersuasivesuccess. ❖ResearchEvidenceandCommentary Therearesomequestionsregardingthesummativemodelofattitude: GeneralCorrelationalEvidence Thegeneralevidenceconcerningthemodel:thereisnocompellingsupportfortheclaimthat attitudeisdeterminedbysalientbeliefs.Attitudescansometimesbeequallywellpredictedfrom non-salientbeliefsasfromsalientones.So,beliefassessmentscanindicateaperson’sattitude butfallsshortofshowingthatattitudesaredeterminedbysalientbeliefs. AttributeImportance Therolesofattributeimportance:themodelusesonlybeliefstrengthandbeliefevaluationto predictattitude,someresearcheshavethoughtthatthepredictabilityofattitudemightbe improvedbyaddingtheimportanceorrelevanceoftheattributeasathirdvariable.Butthe evidenceinhandsuggeststhataddingrelevanceorimportancetothesummativeformuladoes notimprovethepredictabilityofattitude.Beliefimportanceratingsmaybecrucialinpermitting theidentificationofthosebeliefs. Butenhancingthepredictabilityofattitudeisnotthemainresearchgoal.Largerpurpose: illuminatinghowbeliefscontributetoattitude.So,althoughbeliefimportancemightnotaddto thepredictabilityofattitudefrom‘thesummativeformula’,beliefimportanceratingsmaybe crucialinpermittingtheidentificationofthosebeliefsthatdeterminetherespondent’sattitude. BeliefContent Themodelofferswhatmightbecalledacontent-freeanalysisoftheunderpinningsofattitude. Thatisthe,forthesummativemodel’sanalysis,contentofabeliefisirrelevant;whatmattersis simplyhowthebeliefisevaluatedandhowstronglyitisheld.Thepointisthatthemodel providesnosystemicwaysofthinkingaboutbeliefcontent(image-orientedandquality- oriented),althoughsuchcontentismanifestlyimportant. Examplefordifferencesinbeliefcontent:twocarownerscanbothhavepositiveattitudesabout acarbutverydifferentkindsofsalientbeliefs.Onehadbeliefsaboutgasmileageandtheother aboutwhatidentityisconveyedbythecar. Thiscontentisimportantforpersuasion. Stuvia.com - The Marketplace to Buy and Sell your Study Material Downloaded by: beomjookim |
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