this file is the book, page 13-20 is the explanation but i need the exercises from page 21-25
Biology 3454 General Zoology Laboratory Manual Thomas J Firneno Jr. and Corey E. Roelke Adapted from BIOL 3454 Manual by Dr. Matthew K. Nelson Table of Contents Laboratory 1: Microscopy, Systematics, and Cladistics ................................................................. 6 Laboratory 2: Basal Animal Lineages – Phyla Porifera and Cnidaria ......... Error! Bookmark not defined. Laboratory 3: Phyla Annelida and Mollusca ................................. Error! Bookmark not defined. Laboratory 4: Phyla Rotifera, Platyhelminthes, and Nemata ........ Error! Bookmark not defined. Laboratory 5: Panarthropoda – Phyla Onychophora, Tardigrada, and Arthropoda .............. Error! Bookmark not defined. Laboratory 6: Deuterostomia – Phyla Echinodermata, Hemichordata, and Basal Chordates....................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined. Laboratory 7: Fish and Amphibians .............................................. Error! Bookmark not defined. Laboratory 8: Amniotes – Reptiles, Birds, and Mammals ............ Error! Bookmark not defined. Appendix A: Taxonomy ................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined. Appendix B: Dissection Guides .................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined. i An Introduction to BIOL 3457: General Zoology Laboratory Manual Course Structure BIOL 3457: General Zoology lab is designed to develop your independence within the lab and your abilities to synthesize broad concepts between lecture and lab. This lab is meant to be primarily self-guided. The information that you need to be successful in this lab has been provided to you within your syllabus and lab manual. Your lab instructor will guide and assist you with the mastery of this material. However, you are responsible for learning and synthesizing the information. Come to class prepared by carefully reading the lab material, as well as the lab exercises. When approaching the questions in the lab exercises, think about them critically, search for the answer either within your lab manual, photographic atlas, textbook, or online resources, and, only once you have exhausted these possibilities, ask your lab instructor. The material presented in this course builds off of the concepts that you are learning/will learn within lecture. Typically, you will be given more specific information in lab that you should be able to synthesize with broader concepts presented within the lecture. Like lecture, the material presented in this lab is presented in a phylogenetic context. A good guide to how this lab is structured is offered as a comprehensive cladogram (Appendix A) of the broad groups that we will explore throughout this lab. Assignments Much of your success will be based off of the exercises and assignments that you will carry out in each lab. There is quite a bit of material that we cover in this lab. Through the exercises, drawings, and questions offered at the end of each lab, the expectations of what should be known for assessments (e.g. practicals and quizzes) are laid out respectively. It is suggested that students work on and try to answer a bulk of these questions as they read through the material prior to coming to lab. ii LABORATORY 1: MICROSCOPY, SYSTEMATICS, AND CLADISTICS Part I: Microscopy I. Light/Compound Microscopes The Basics A light or compound microscope is used for viewing small organisms that will fit on a glass slide. They may be live or preserved specimens, but they must be small enough or thin enough for light to penetrate through them. The basic principle used in a light microscope is that a light positioned on one side of a slide shines through the slide and the specimen into a system of lenses that magnifies the image and passes the light into your eyes. The lens closest to the specimen is called the objective lens, and the lens that you look through is called the ocular lens. This type of microscope is also called a “compound microscope,” because of the compound effect of viewing the image through multiple lenses. For example, the high-power objective has a magnification of 40X, but since the ocular lens has a magnification of 10X, the total magnification of the specimen is 40 x 10 = 400X. The highest total magnification of a compound microscope is usually 1000X, using an oil-immersion lens. The 100X objective requires that the specimen be viewed through a drop of mineral oil that actually makes contact with the lens itself. The oil-immersion objective is useful when viewing very small subjects like bacteria. We will not be using the 100X objective. When viewing a subject with a compound microscope, one would normally begin with the lowest power objective and move to increasingly higher power objectives in succession. We will use the 4X, 10X and 40X objectives. Later in this section, we will discuss the steps to take when viewing a slide with the compound microscope. Parts of the Compound Microscope When retrieving a microscope from the storage area, one should be sure to place one hand under the base of the microscope and hold the arm of the microscope with the other hand. Please keep mind that these microscopes are very expensive instruments. Microscopes should be returned to storage after usage. There are two adjustments for the light source on the microscope, an intensity adjustment (located on the base) and the diaphragm. The diaphragm adjusts the aperture through which the light is transmitted. Objectives can be selected by rotating the nosepiece until it clicks into place. If the objective is not fully in place, the view through the ocular will be obstructed. When changing objectives, the nosepiece should always be visualized from the side to make sure that the objective is not going to make contact with the slide. If it does, it can damage the slide, the specimen, or the objective. The focus can be changed by using the fine or coarse adjustment knobs located near the base of the scope. Use of the Compound Microscope Often, if you hold the slide up to the light you will be able to see the specimen. You will want to position the slide so that the specimen is directly under the middle of the objective. Initially, you should begin with the scanning (4X objective) or the low power objective (10X). Never begin with the high-power objective (40X). This is not because we do not trust you. This is not because we do not think you know what you are doing. As magnification increases, the field of view decreases and it becomes more difficult to focus. As a result, it will be too difficult to find what you are looking for under high power. If you turn the coarse adjustment knob, you will notice that it actually moves the stage up and down. The fine adjustment does the same thing, but slower. The most efficient way to begin is by turning the coarse adjustment until the stage is as close to the objective as it will go. Notice that the low power objective will not touch the slide. This is not the case with the high-power objective. Never ever use the coarse adjustment knob with the high- power objective. If you turn the coarse adjustment under high power, you will most likely break the slide, and possibly the objective. Using the low power or scanning objective, look through the ocular and see if you can visualize the specimen. Now, rotate the coarse adjustment until the image starts to come into focus. When it is almost in focus, use the fine adjustment to sharpen the image. Keep in mind that the specimen you are viewing is three- dimensional. You can use the fine adjustment to focus up and down through the specimen. You may also notice that when you move the slide left, the image through the oculars moves right, and vice- versa. Also, when you move the slide up, the image moves down. This can make it challenging to follow a moving specimen on a wet-mount slide. Once you have found the specimen under low power, you may wish to switch to high power to view it under increased magnification. When an object is in focus under low power, it should remain in focus when switching to a higher power objective. This is because the objectives of compound microscopes are parfocal. When switching to the high-power objective, be sure to