The various symbolic-interaction theories all see deviance as a
reality that may emerge within the process of interaction. Labe-
ling theory links deviance not to the action but to the reaction
of others. Thus some people are defined as deviant but others
who think or behave in the same way are not. The concepts
of secondary deviance, deviant career, and stigma show how
being labeled deviant can become a lasting self-concept.
Yet labeling theory has several limitations. First, because it
takes a highly relative view of deviance, labeling theory ignores
the fact that some kinds of behavior—such as murder—are
condemned just about everywhere. Therefore, labeling theory
is most usefully applied to less serious issues, such as sexual
promiscuity or mental illness. Second, research on the con-
sequences of deviant labeling does not clearly show whether
deviant labeling produces further deviance or discourages it (Smith &
Gartin, 1989; Sherman & Smith, 1992). Third, not everyone resists be-
ing labeled deviant; some people actively seek it out (Vold & Bernard,
1986). For example, people take part in civil disobedience and willingly
subject themselves to arrest in order to call attention to social injustice.
Sociologists consider Sutherland’s differential association theory
and Hirschi’s control theory important contributions to our under-
standing of deviance. But why do society’s norms and laws define
certain kinds of activities as deviant in the first place? This question
is addressed by social-conflict analysis, the focus of the next section.
Check Your Learning Clearly define primary deviance, sec-
ondary deviance, deviant career, and stigma.