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Applied Research in Action Write a 750- to 1,050-word essay responding to the following scenario: The city police chief reaches out to you knowing your applied research experience. The department has recently had an increase in citizen complaints and officer use-of-force incidents. The chief is considering adopting the use of body-worn cameras (BWCs) but would like to understand research on their effectiveness. She finds you well qualified to provide some direction in this regard. She has asked that you thoroughly review the research article entitled “Exploring the Potential for Body-Worn Cameras to Reduce Violence in Police–Citizen Encounters,” published in Policing, and prepare an essay for her in which you address each of the following elements: · Describe the primary purpose of the study (exploration, description, explanation, or evaluation). What were the research questions that the study was designed to answer? · List the key independent and dependent variables, identifying the causal relationships the researchers sought to examine. Explain how the researchers conceptualized and operationalized the dependent variables. · Explain the time dimension of the study and how it impacted data collection. Describe whether the study involved a cross-sectional or longitudinal design and whether data were collected retrospectively or prospectively. · How did the researchers test to see whether BWCs were related to the study dependent variables? · What were the results of the study in terms of each of the causal relationships examined? In discussing the findings, be sure to distinguish the study participant groups in terms of outcomes between the separate groups, as well as changes over time within each group. Discuss unusual study findings, noting any changes in conditions under which the study was conducted and other potential reasons these results might have occurred. · Discuss the themes that emerged from the study, providing recommendations to the police chief regarding use of BWCs. Be sure to cite your sources in the body of your paper and list them on your reference page, consistent with APA guidelines. Remember, applied research is not common knowledge, so it is important to cite to all of your sources of information. Exploring the Potential for Body-Worn Cameras to Reduce Violence in Police–Citizen Encounters 1 Article Exploring the Potential for Body-Worn Cameras to Reduce Violence in Police–Citizen Encounters Michael D. White*, Janne E. Gaub** and Natalie Todak*** Abstract One of the most compelling perceived benefits of body-worn cameras (BWCs) involves the potential for reductions in citizen complaints and police use of force. A handful of early studies reported significant reductions in both outcomes following BWC adoption, but several recent studies have failed to document such effects. The current study explores this question using data from a randomized controlled trial conducted in the Spokane (WA) Police Department. Approximately half of patrol officers (n = 82) were assigned BWCs in May 2015, while the other half (n = 67) received their BWCs 6 months later (November 2015). The study explores the effects of BWCs on use of force, complaints against officers, and officer injuries, using more than three years of official department data pre- and post- BWC deployment. The outcomes of interest are rare in Spokane, which limited both statistical power and the results from significance testing. However, the within-group trends are consistent with a positive effect, particularly for percent change. Following BWC deployment, the percentage of officers with a complaint in each group declined by 50% and 78% (Control and Treatment, respectively); the percentage of officers with a use of force declined notably (39%) for one group only. The reductions disappeared after 6 months for the Treatment group. There was no relationship between BWCs and officer injuries. The authors discuss the implications of the findings for the ongoing dialogue on BWCs. Introduction that occurred during the 1960s (Kerner Commis- A persistent undercurrent of racial tension has been sion, 1968, p. 157). Fifty years later, the final report one of the defining features of American law en- of the President’s Task Force on 21st Century forcement over much of the last century (White Policing (2015, p. 5) again pointed to low reserves and Fradella, 2016). In 1968, the National of trust and police legitimacy in minority commu- Advisory Commission on Civil Disorders con- nities as the explanation for civil unrest following cluded ‘deep hostility between police and ghetto police killings of citizens in Ferguson (MO), communities’ was a primary cause of the riots Baltimore (MD), and other cities across the US: *Arizona State University, School of Criminology and Criminal Justice, Phoenix, AZ, USA. E-mail:
[email protected] **Arizona State University, Center for Violence Prevention and Community Safety, Phoenix, AZ, USA ***University of Alabama, Birmingham, Department of Justice Sciences, Birmingham, AL, USA Policing, pp. 1–11 doi:10.1093/police/paw057 © The Author 2017. Published by Oxford University Press. All rights reserved. For permissions please e-mail:
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[email protected] 2 Policing Article M. D. White et al. ‘In establishing the task force, the President spoke of the distrust that exists between too many police departments and too many communities—the sense that in a country where our basic principle is equality under the law, too many individuals, particularly young people of color, do not feel as if they are being treated fairly.’ The Task Force (2015) final report identified nearly 60 recommendations for building trust be tween police and citizens, and body-worn cameras (BWCs) are highlighted as a tool for achieving that objective. Since 2015, the White House and the US Department of Justice have strongly promoted the adoption of BWCs by police, as evidenced by the creation of a National Body-Worn Camera Toolkit (Bureau of Justice Assistance, 2016a), a federal funding program that has provided $40 million to more than 175 law enforcement agencies for the purchase of BWCs (Department of Justice, 2016), and a training and technical assistance mechanism that facilitates BWC adoption and program man agement (Bureau of Justice Assistance, 2016b). Proponents of BWCs have made numerous claims regarding the benefits of the technology, including that BWCs can reduce violence during police-citizen encounters (White, 2014).1 A number of early studies reported significant reductions in citizen complaints against officers and police use of force following de ployment of BWCs, suggesting the technology can produce measurable change in these two important outcomes. An evaluation of BWCs in the Rialto (CA) Police Department documented a nearly 90% drop in citizen complaints against police, and a 60% de cline in use of force by officers (Ariel et al., 2015). Similarly, positive results have emerged from studies in Mesa (AZ; Mesa Police Department, 2013), Orlando (FL; Jennings et al., 2015), and Tampa (FL; Sullivan and Marrero, 2016).2 Hedberg and col leagues (2016) estimated the effect of BWCs on citi zen complaints in Phoenix (AZ) and concluded ‘if BWCs are employed as prescribed [i.e., 100 percent activation compliance], a majority of complaints against officers would be eliminated’ (p. 16). However, several recent studies have failed to document positive effects on citizen complaints and use of force. A study by the Edmonton Police Service (2015) concluded BWCs had no measurable impact on either outcome. Grossmith et al. (2015) found a statistically significant decline in citizen complaints in only two of the ten London police boroughs examined.3 Ariel and colleagues (2016c, p. 2) described findings from ten BWC studies and concluded the technology ‘had no effect on use of force’ overall, but the null finding was explained by mixed results across studies.4 Ariel et al. (2016c) also found a troubling link between BWCs and increased rates of assaults on officers.5 Ariel et al. (2016b) tied patterns in use of force to officer de cisions on BWC activation. That is, when officers followed policy—they activated the BWC at the start of citizen encounters and advised citizens of the BWC—use of force declined by 37%. When officers did not follow policy, use of force actually increased by 71%. The mixed findings on BWCs and violence in police–citizen encounters suggest the dynamics at play may be considerably more complex than ori ginally described by advocates of the technology.6 Research has explored a number of other potential benefits and limitations associated with BWCs. Due to space constraints, the authors focus on the outcomes most relevant for the current study: use of force, complaints, and officer injuries. See White (2014) and the National Body-Worn Camera Toolkit (Bureau of Justice Assistance, 2016a) for additional discussion of other benefits and challenges associated with BWCs. 2 For additional studies reporting reductions in complaints and use of force see: Goodall (2007); Ellis et al. (2015). 3 Six of the ten boroughs did experience fewer complaints but only two reached statistical significance, and the effect across all boroughs was also not significant (Grossmith et al., 2015). 4 Researchers randomized shifts rather than officers (Ariel et al., 2016c). 5 To our knowledge, Ariel et al. (2016c) is the only published study to examine this important outcome. 6 We use ‘violence’ as a general term that captures aggression and combativeness in police–citizen encounters, and we treat use of force, complaints against officers, and officer injuries as indicators of violence. 1 Deleted Text: " Deleted Text: " Deleted Text: percent Deleted Text: percent Deleted Text: " Deleted Text: " Deleted Text: g Deleted Text: " Deleted Text: " Deleted Text: -- Deleted Text: -- Deleted Text: - 3 Potential for Body-Worn Cameras Article Policing The inconsistent results are especially troubling given the rapid diffusion of BWCs in law enforce ment and the potentially severe, longstanding con sequences of violence in police–citizen encounters (Fyfe, 1988; President’s Task Force on 21st Century Policing, 2015; White and Klinger, 2012). Moreover, the potential link between BWCs and increased assaults on officers (Ariel et al., 2016c) warrants immediate attention from researchers. The current study explores these questions using data from a randomized controlled trial in Spokane, Washington. Methods and data The current study is part of a larger project exam ining the impact and consequences of BWCs. In early 2015, the Spokane Police Department (SPD) leadership devised a plan for a staggered rollout of BWCs to all patrol officers in two phases (n = 149).7 The leadership worked with the authors to randomize the process by which