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Lecture: Hinduism Philosophical and Metaphysical Origins The Brahmanic tradition may be traced back the Vedic age. The history and precise dating of this period is controversial. For many years, most scholars accepted the Aryan Invasion Theory, according to which a nomadic people who called themselves Aryans invaded the northwestern Indian subcontinent and conquered the people of the Indus Valley. The Aryans developed the Vedic tradition, an important base for the later development of Hinduism. This theory, along with the identification of the inhabitants of the Indus Valley or Harappan civilization, is now contested. Some scholars argued that the Indus Valley people were the ancestors of the speakers of the Dravidian languages of south India, and that the Aryan invasion forced them to move southward. Some Hindu nationalists, however, assert that the Aryans were native to India. Much of the controversy rests upon interpretation of archeological data, and is complicated by the fact that the script used by the Indus Valley people has not yet been deciphered. Current research suggests that changes in Indus Valley sites were brought about by small-scale migrations over time rather than a violent Aryan invasion. (Students may wonder whether there is any connection between the term Aryan, as used here and its usage in Nazi ideology. Aryan is originally a Sanskrit word. Students who investigate visual representations of Hindu deities may also notice swastikas; swastika is also a Sanskrit word meaning “well-being.” These terms as used in Hinduism have nothing to do with Nazism.) While it is difficult to reach definite answers about this controversy, we can study the Vedas to learn more about the early foundations of Sanatana Dharma. It is important to note that the Vedas are the foundation of upper-caste Brahmanic Hinduism, but not necessarily all forms of Sanatana Dharma. The Vedas are a collection of sacred hymns; the names of the different portions of the collection may be difficult for students. The earliest portion is the Samhitas, followed by the Brahmanas, the Aranyakas, and Upanishads. (The term Veda may apply specifically to the four samhitas, e.g., the Rig Veda, or the collected hymns in their entirety.) At the introductory level, understanding the nature of the Vedic samhitas and the Upanishads is most important. The Vedas were initially preserved orally, and their ritual use depends upon proper oral recitation. According to Hindu tradition, the Vedas were not composed by humans, but rather were heard by ancient sages or rishis, and then compiled by Vyasa. The samhitas contain hymns to various devas or deities; the later Upanishads represent mystical insights and focus on inward self-exploration as means of knowing Brahman, the all-pervading reality. It is important not to be confused by different forms of the word “brahman.” First, there are the Brahmanas, a portion of the Vedas (although the terms have been transliterated without diacriticals, the first “a” in this word is long, as in “father”). Then, there is brahman, the all-pervading reality (the first “a” in this form of the word is short, like the “u” in “butter”). There is also Brahmin/Brahman (as in “Brahmanic Hinduism”), the priestly caste. The rishis who appear in the Upanishads taught that Brahman, the all-pervading reality, could be known from within as the subtle self or soul, atman. The Upanishads relate key doctrines of Sanatana Dharma, such as the concept of a cycle of death and rebirth known as samsara, in which the atman is continually reborn according to the results of one’s actions, or karma. The rishis sought to escape this cycle of death and rebirth and attain moksha, liberation from samsara. Major Philosophical Systems The various philosophical systems of Hinduism share roots in the Vedas as well as direct personal experience of truth through meditation, a concern for ethics as necessary to orderly social life (related to karma), and the belief that suffering is due to ignorance of the eternal self. Important philosophical systems include the dualistic views of Samkhya (which holds that there is an eternally wise, pure changeless self known as Purusha, and Prakriti, the cause of the material universe), the monistic position of Advaita Vedanta (which holds that atman and Brahman are one and that the power of maya makes the material world seem real), and a variety of forms of yoga. Raja yoga, the path of mental concentration, incorporates practices known as sadhanas, and was described in the Yoga Sutras (sutras are terse sayings or aphorisms). Jnana yoga is the path of rational inquiry. Karma yoga is the path of right action. Yoga encompasses many forms of spiritual discipline, all of which seek self-knowledge. Yogic practice may include regulation of breathing to increase prana (“breath”; life energy), various physical postures (asanas), the use of sacred formulas or mantras, and/or concentration on a visual form which may include a yantra (cosmically symbolic linear image) or the OM symbol. Some forms of yoga focus on controlling the flow of energy through the chakras (pronounced “chuck- rah”) or subtle energy centers along the spine. Practitioners of yoga seek samadhi, union with the Absolute. Various forms of yoga are geared towards different personality types, from the active to the rational to the emotional. Most common is bhakti yoga, the path of devotion to a personal deity. Throughout the history of Sanatana Dharma, many bhaktas or devotees have composed verses expressing their love and longing for the divine. Religious Foundations and Theistic Paths In ancient times, rituals involving fire sacrifice and recitation of the Vedas were apparently dominant. The bhakti or devotional approach, however, gradually came to dominate around 600 CE. It was open to both women and shudras (manual laborers and artisans), who had been excluded from direct participation in Vedic ritual. There are three major groupings of people: Vaishnavites, who worship Vishnu (and deities associated with him), Saivites, who worship Siva (and deities associated with him), and Saktas, who worship a goddess. [Fisher’s transliteration style is inconsistent here; Siva is pronounced “Shiva,” Sakta is pronounced “shakta,” and sakti is pronounced “shakti.”] While many people have a chosen deity, they may also worship other deities for various reasons. Many Hindus speak of an ultimate, genderless form of the deity who encompasses all the functions— creation, preservation, and destruction—of the specific deities. It is important to point out to students that the three major groupings do not constitute hard boundaries; people may worship a variety of gods and goddesses for various purposes at different points in their lives. The Sakta tradition may or may not include the Vedic path. The power of the goddess is known as sakti. This feminine power may manifest in many forms, from village goddesses associated with a particular locale to the great goddesses of upper class mythology. Important goddesses include Durga and Kali. The goddess may be fierce or gentle. Her worship may be linked to nature, especially trees and rivers. Texts called Tantras provide instructions for worshipping the feminine divine. Sakti is a key concept for the gods as well, for each has a female consort known as his sakti. Fisher concludes this section with a discussion of women’s roles within Hinduism; she notes that the female is highly respected, while at the same time spiritual liberation has traditionally been restricted to males. Women are linked to and defined by their husbands. In contemporary India, while there are many examples of highly educated and successful women, there are also cases of sex-selective abortion (female fetuses aborted because of the high value placed on sons), female infanticide, and dowry murders. The god Siva may be represented in a variety of forms, as the lord of yoga, as husband of the goddess Parvati, and to some Saivites as the attributeless supreme deity. Siva and his sakti may be portrayed together as an androgynous figure, and may also be represented by a lingam within a yoni. Siva’s son Ganesh (created by Parvati) may be familiar to some students—he has an elephant head and his favor is sought at the beginning of any new venture. The god Vishnu has been worshipped since Vedic times; he is understood to have appeared in a series of earthly incarnations, some in animal form. Two of his most well-known incarnations are the gods Rama and Krishna (though Krishna may be revered without reference to Vishnu). Krishna devotion is especially popular; the devotee may imagine himself in a close personal relationship to him, as friend, brother, mother, or beloved. Also important is Vishnu’s consort Lakshmi, associated with prosperity. The Epics and Puranas Arising after 500 CE, the epics and Puranas illustrate the trend towards personal love for a deity. The two major epics are the Ramayana and the Mahabharata. The epics illustrate aspects of the theory of yugas or ages, according to which the cosmos passes through a series of four ages, with dharma or moral order gradually declining in each era. Vishnu therefore incarnates himself (as an avatar) to ameliorate the situation. The world is understood currently to be in the fourth and most degenerate age, the Kali Yuga. The Ramayana, compiled sometime between 400 BCE and 200 CE, depicts the duties (i.e. dharma) involved in various kinds of relationships through its telling of the story of the prince Rama, his wife Sita, and a wider cast of characters. The story exists both in a Sanskrit version and multiple vernacular oral and written traditions. The vast Mahabharata, composed perhaps sometime between 4000 BCE and 400 CE, includes one of the best-known texts of Hinduism, the Bhagavad- Gita, which relates a dialogue between Krishna and Arjuna at the beginning of a battle between two sides of a family. The Puranas (traditionally