Michael spent most of the class period lecturing to his students about the Crusades, and lectures have consistently been identified as ineffective teaching strategies. With respect to motivation,...

Michael spent most of the class period lecturing to his students about the Crusades, and lectures have consistently been identified as ineffective teaching strategies. With respect to motivation, which of the following best explains why his lecture might have a negative impact on his students’ motivation to learn?

a. Lectures are inconsistent with self-determination theory, because lectures cannot provide students with information that helps increase their perceptions of competence.

b. Lectures are commonly boring, and boredom is a negative emotion shown to detract from motivation to learn.

c. Lectures are inconsistent with expectancy x value theory because they cannot provide students with information that students believe has utility value.

d. Lectures detract from motivation to learn because it isn’t possible for students to establish mastery goals when their teachers lecture.