In Chapter 8 of the Johnson and Johnson text, review Exercise 8.2.Score your results. Pay careful attention to “Controversy/DecisionMaking Procedures: Which animal are you in your professional/career world? Which animal are you in your personal world? Do you play the same role in each? Share your thoughts in the discussion post and support your response by citing text.
July LED602 Key Concepts Week 3 CLP National University What does leadership mean to you? What Makes a Leader a Leader? What is a leader? What is leadership? Who do you think of when hearing the word “leader”? What makes a leader a leader? Genetic traits? Style of leadership? Ability to influence others? Occupation of position of authority? Ability to provide helpful behaviors in diverse situations? Theories of Leadership Trait theories Leadership styles Influence theory of leadership Role position theory of leadership Situational theories of leadership Organizational leadership Trait Theories of Leadership Leaders are born, not made. “Great man/woman” Which traits are essential for leadership? Findings: intelligence, initiative, sense of humor, extroversion, personal adjustment, etc. BUT little predictive or diagnostic value Problems with the trait theory: Unlimited number of traits can be identified Different traits are needed under different conditions “great leaders” are identified after the fact (not predicted) Charismatic and Machiavellian Leaders Charismatic leaders have: An extraordinary vision they are able to communicate well Unusual power of leadership Sense of mission, a belief in the social change movement they lead Self-confidence Machiavellian leaders believe: People are basically weak, fallible, and gullible and not really trustworthy Others are impersonal objects One should manipulate others when necessary in order to achieve one’s goals Leadership Styles Lewin, Lippitt, and White (1939)’s classic study on the relationship between leadership style and productivity Unlimited number of styles can be identified Different styles of leadership may be effective under different circumstances Influence Theory of Leadership Leader: a group member exerting more influence on other group members than they exert on him Reciprocal role relationship between leaders and followers Role Position Approach to Leadership Leader: a person who holds a position of authority Problems: Unclear how someone gets into a leadership position Leaders don’t always display leadership behaviors, and subordinates often engage in leadership actions Subordinates will be influenced by outsiders Situational Theories of Leadership The distributed actions theory of leadership Any group member may become a leader by taking action to help the group Any leadership action can be fulfilled by different members Leadership is specific to a particular group in a particular situation Interaction - Process Analysis Fiedler’s Situational Theory of Leadership Organizational Leadership Challenge the status quo Inspire a clear mutual vision Empower members through cooperative teamwork Lead by example Encourage the hearts of group members to persist Summary Small group leadership has been conceptualized in lots of different ways Organizational leadership involves challenging the status quo, inspiring a mutual vision, empowering members through teams, leading by example, and by encouraging the heart Leadership and participation need to be distributed among all group members Higher productivity (the resources of all members are used) Commitment to implementing the group decisions Satisfaction with group membership Compare and contrast concepts of power and leadership. Power Power: Capacity To Affect Outcomes Of Oneself, Others, Environment Direct: In Interpersonal, Intergroup Interaction Indirect: Through Group Norms, Values, Traditions Constructive Vs. Destructive Use Of Power: Constructive: Increases Group Effectiveness, Benefits All Group Members, Encouraged By All Group Members Destructive: Increases Self-Benefit, Forces Others To Do Something They Do Not Wish To Do Two Major Theories: Dynamic-Interdependence: Who Influences Whom Changes Constantly As Individuals Strive To Achieve Mutual Goals Trait Factor: Disposition To Exert Power Over Other People What is Power? A quality of a person? Of a position? Of a place? Of a situation? Of a relationship? Can be constructive or destructive (enhances or interferes with the effectiveness of group work) Dominant view: power is negative and destructive. “Power tends to corrupt, and absolute power tends to corrupt absolutely” (Lord Acton) Dynamic-Interdependence View of Power: positive and essential for mutual enhancement Imposed on OthersInvited by Others Benefits SelfMost destructiveMislead, swindled, altruism Benefits OthersPaternalismMost constructive The Dynamic-Interdependence View of Power Who Influences Whom To What Degree Changes Constantly As Members Strive To Achieve The Group’s Goals. Power Exists In Relationships. Power Is: Inevitable Essential Dynamic Distributed Context Is Decisive Competitive Cooperative Power in Competitive Context Defined as: successful influence that overcomes the other’s unwillingness to perform the desired behavior. Currently dominating approach among social scientists and power holders Power is viewed as: A fixed-pie resource A zero-sum resource A commodity to be accumulated Acting in a unidirectional way Inherently coercive Limits other uses of power (based on trust and power sharing) Evokes reactance Power in Cooperative Context Defined as: successful influence used to maximize joint benefits, and enhance the group’s effectiveness Power is viewed as Expandable To be shared Acting in bidirectional way Inherently noncoercive Mobilizing Power to Achieve Goals Determine your goals Determine your relevant resources Determine your needed coalitions Negotiate mutual support contracts Implement the contracts The Trait-Factor Approach to Power Static Atomistic Historical Inductive Power and persuasion Aristotle Yale Attitude Change program, headed by Carl Hovland Social Dominance Theory The Bases of Power Social exchange theory: power is based on the control of valuable resources. The type of resource basis for power (French & Raven, 1959) Reward power Coercive power Legitimate power Referent power Expert power Informational power Power and Problem Solving Groups are more effective at solving problems when Power is relatively balanced among its members Power is based upon competence, expertise, and information High Power Members Happy with the situation Hard to move toward cooperation, conciliation, and compromise Two strategies to keep the status quo: Institute rules and norms to legitimize their power (“might-is-right”) Deter low-power group members from rocking the boat by applying carrot and stick method (“if-only-you-would-behave-neither-of-us-would-go-through-this-suffering”) The metamorphic effects of high power Status and power Power stereotyping theory Oppression High Power Strategies To Justify Status Quo - LEAD L = Legitimize Own Privileges And Intimidate Low-Power Individuals E = Self-Enhancement A = Attribute Low-Power People’s Success To Own Control D = Devalue Low-Power Individuals And Their Contributions Low Power Members Build Coalitions Educate And Morally Persuade Bring High-Power Group Members To Negotiating Table: Use Existing Legal Procedures To Pressure For Change Use Obstruction Or Harassment To Increase High-Power Members’ Costs Terrorism Metamorphic Effects Of Low-Power Relationships Among Low-Power Groups Revenge Low-Power Strategies To Change Status Quo - CORE C = Cooperative, Compliant, Yielding To High- Power Members O = Attribution Of Causes Of Group Successes To Own Efforts R = Resistance, Psychological Reactance, Obstruction Of High-Power Members‘ Efforts E = Negative Evaluations Of High-Power Members Group Norms Conforming To Group Norms: Conformity: Changes In Behavior Resulting From Group Influences Compliance: Behavioral Change Without Internal Acceptance The Group Mind Collective Behavior: Spontaneously Perform Atypical Actions Such As Riots Or Mass Hysteria Group Mind: In Mob Individuals Act Impulsively Unreasonably, Extreme Ways Anonymity: People Feel Less Responsible For Actions Contagion: Emotion States Spreads From Person To Person Convergence Theory: People With Compatible Motivations Release Previously Controlled Behaviors Emergent Norm Theory: Heterogeneous Individuals Adhere To Current Norms Deindividuation: State Of Relative Anonymity, Members Do Not Feel Identifiable Summary Power Dynamic Interdependence Approach Trait Factor Approach Bases Of Power Unequal Power High-Power Members Low-Power Members Indirect Use Of Power Norms Group Mind What are the benefits of group decision making over individual decision making? Decision Making Decision: Reaching Agreement Among Group Members As To Which Of Several Courses Of Action Is Most Desirable For Achieving The Group’s Goals Decision Effectiveness: Resources Of Group Members Are Fully Utilized Time Is Well Used Decision Is Correct Or Of High Quality Solves The Problem So It Does Not Reoccur Can Be Implemented Possible To Provide Needed Time, People, Materials Decision Is Implemented Fully By All Required Group Members Problem-Solving Ability Of Group Is Improved Individual Vs. Group Decisions Groups Typically Make Better Decisions Than Individuals Learn Faster Make Fewer Errors Recall Information Better Produce Higher-Quality Products Process Gain: Interaction Among Members Results In Ideas, Insights, Strategies That No Member Previously Thought Of Incorrect Solutions May Be Recognized And Rejected More Accurate And Extensive Memory OF Facts And Events Each Member May Have Unique Information Unknown To Others Greater Member Motivation More Risk Taking Greater Commitment To Implementation Diversity Increases Variety Of Resources Increased Quality Of Reasoning, Creativity Social Facilitation Social Facilitation: Enhancement Of Well-Learned Responses In Presence Of Others Social Impairment: Lowering Of Performance On Difficult, Complex Tasks In Presence Of Others Zajonc: Presence Of Others Increases Physiological Arousal And This Increases Likelihood Of Engaging In Dominant Response Baron: Presence Of Others Creates “Attentional Temptation,” Conflict Between Attending To Others Or To Task Duval & Wickland: Presence Of Others Heightens Self-Consciousness, Which Increases Motivation Bond: Presence Of Others Creates Need To Project Positive Image Evaluation Apprehension (Concern About Being Judged) Creates Anxiety And Arousal Group Polarization Group Polarization: A Tendency For Groups To Make Decisions That Are More Extreme Than The Initial inclination Of Members (May Be More Risky Or Cautious) Normative Influences: Members Advocate Perceived Group Position To Make Favorable Impression On Others Informational Influences: Members Learn New Information That Make Them Modify Their Position Social Identification: Individuals Identify With Group And Want To Be Considered Members Involvement In Decision Making Increase Quality Of Decision By Fully Utilizing Resources Of Each Member Increase Member Commitment To Implement Decision Changing Attitudes And Behavior Group Discussion Changed Attitudes And Behavior More Than Lectures Or Reading Critical Factors: Public Commitment: Publicly State To Group You Will Implement Decision Perceived Consensus In Group: Believe All Other Group Members Are Implementing Decision Type Of Task Steiner: Divisible: Split Into Parts Unitary: Done As Whole Disjunctive: Group Score Is That Of Best Individual Member Conjunctive: Group Score Is That Of Worse Individual Member Additive: Group Score Is Sum Of Group Member Contributions Discretionary: Group Score Is Any Combination Of Individual Member Efforts Groups Outperform Individuals On Almost All Tasks: Under Some Conditions, Individuals Outperform Groups On Some Unitary Tasks Potential Group Productivity Potential Productivity: Groups’ Maximum Possible Level Of Productivity Depends On Member Resources Task Demands Process Loss: Coordination Losses: Members Do Not Organize Efforts Optimally Motivation Losses: Members Are Not Optimally Motivated Actual Productivity = Potential Productivity – Process Loss Problems: On Complex Tasks There Is More Than One Way To Define Productivity People Can Be More Motivated In Groups Than When Working Alone People Working Alone Often Do Not Perform Up To Potential Member Diversity Promise: Increases Productivity And Achievement And Creativity Cohesion: Positive Relationships (Absenteeism, Turnover, Satisfaction) And Decreases In Stereotyping And Prejudice Increases Conflict (Which Has Positive Potential) Increases Sophistication Highlights Values Of Democracy Dangers Decreases Productivity And Achievement Due To Difficulties In Working Together Negative Relationships, Increases In Stereotyping And Prejudice Hard Work (Interaction Strain) Computer-Mediated Decision Making Groups Communicating Through Computers Generally Make Lower-Quality Decisions Than Face-To-Face Groups, Except When Groups Had Unlimited Time And Members Were Anonymous Personal Relationships, Group Cohesion, Member Commitment Tend To Be Built Through Face-To-Face Interaction Methods Of Decision Making Authority Without Group Discussion Expert Member Decision By Averaging Individual Opinions Authority After Group Discussion Minority Control, Such As Executive Committee Majority Control, Such As Majority Vote Consensus: Every Member Agrees All Members Committed To Implementing Uses Resources Of All Members Increases Future Decision Making Effectiveness Characterized By Conflict, Member Confidence In Decision Takes Time Guidelines For Consensus