In Chapter 5 of Dr. Vaughan's book, she goes into great detail to describe kipuka and kuleana, and how many families have lost their property in a variety of ways. On pg. 88 she states: "This chapter shares the struggles of families of Halele'a and Ko'olau who have remained on ancestral 'aina a century after the Mahele, despite ongoing commodification of land."
Think about these questions: What kind of legal manipulation does Dr. Vaughan describe that allows foreigners to purchase ancestral lands? What issues does she describe with kuleana lands within ahupua's (pg. 102).
Your task is to write a commentary on the constant pressure of ever increasing land values on all of the islands of Hawai'i. Please offer a recommendation that recognizes the land's value other than monetary.
CHAPTER 5 J(ipuka Kuleana to Land Kipuka We always use the word kuleana to refer to land, but kuleana is really your responsibility to that land. -Gary Smith, Kilauea, 2016 This is a sad situation. For me, I can see [my 'ohana] there for at least my lifetime, you know. I'm OK. But eventually the parcel will be gone. That's the heartbreak. And I think it's happening everywhere right now. All the Hawaiians losing land, just out of-we just don't know how to deal with it. We didn't have to deal with all this kind of stuff-we gotta deal with it now. -Haunani Pacheco, Wanini, 2015 J tell my cousins, keep going. Bring your families. This is where your children should learn to swim. This is where they should catch their first fish and play volleyball. Because then they will have a sense of connection and responsibil- ity, even if they live someplace else. -Kainani Kahaunaele, Kalihiwai, 2015 Kipuka are patches of forest that remain standing after a lava flow. The lava separates into two streams, then the flows rejoin, leaving a stand of trees surrounded by an expanse of fresh black rock. Seeds from the kipuka spread to the cooled and hardened lava. First the tendrils of ferns, then other native seedlings, then trees gradually root into the lava and grow new forest sur- rounding the older, original stand. Rural areas of Hawai'i, such as the coast of Halele'a and Ko'olau, are cultural kipuka, "places where Native Hawaiian culture [has] survived dynamic forces of political and economic change th _roughout the twentieth century:'' Often located in remote areas along Winding two-lane roads, cultural kipuka have continued to be inhabited by noho papa-Hawaiian families who have lived on the land for generations, perpetuating cultural practices such as fishing and farming to feed their families from th ,_ · e ama. 87 l'irl I \ I l I; l ' l I , , l i l ,11 l l, l I; '' Ill l \ I' I I Ii I ' l 88 Chapter 5 Because of Hawai'i's history of dispossession it . h th . d' , is rar Hawaiians living w ere e1r ancestors 1d, or to fi e tod f , nd th ay t logical ties and knowledge o an ahupua a continuin °se With O 6nq throughout Hawai'i, and in Halele'a, noho papa famu·g to dwell th 8enea. . . . . d ies conr ere " sociated with the d1stmctive practices an character of inue t · ie1 . ?" f . cornlllu . o be , asked, "Who is the commumty. o any given ahupua, n1ties "\An as. a, most l · ·•n idents of Kaua'i's north shore name the same three to fi 0 ngtini en I f c Ve noh e re ilies.2 This chapter shares strugg es o 1amilies of Halele' 0 Papa ( s. al ,_. aand1<, all\ have remained on ancestr ama a century after the mabel 0 olau wh · · · f i d 3 m i · i h' · e, desp· 0 ing commod1ficat1on o an . u hp e 1stoncal mean f . ite ong s o d1sp o. continue, including burdensome property taxes, shrinkin °ssession ahupua a, and legal manipulation to target hawaiian family t:~:e;s 'within opment, along with newer threats such as termination of lo or deyel. ng-term i difficulties resolving interests of many descendant owners p . . eases, . . . , nvatizar vistas and other culturally important sites, mcreased recreational 10n of competition with the wealthiest of global buyers. use, and despite these struggles, hawaiian fishing families, many of wh . . . h . omcanno longer live m their ancestral omes, contmue to find creative ways to re . dispossession and exercise kuleana that come with being of a place. 1 ex sis! ine these efforts in light of the many hawaiian words and proverbs refer~ to the people of a place. together, ancestral language and contempora actions illuminate kuleana that come with sustained connection to lanj: continuing genealogical ties, maintaining presence, perpetuating in-depth knowledge, caretaking, eating, and feeding. while community actions do not negate ongoing loss and injustice, these stories do offer possibilities: to restore lost connections, grow new ones, and build models that emphasize responsibility and caretaking oflands and resources, rather than ownership. i ka 'olelo no ke ola (in words there is life): insights into hawaiian relationships with .!\.ina hawaiian language has a variety of words that identify the different ~el~- tionships people have with a place, as well as their associated responsibil- ities. some words describe families who have lived on particular lands f;r generations (noho papa) or whose ancestors are buried there (ljiwi), ~h ; other words, such as hoa 'iiina (friend of the land) and kama'aina (child 0 h l d) · h lace where t e an , can include those without genealogical ties to t e p dis· they were born or reside. these varied relationships to land each car_z nt t . k l d e dwere met u eana, expressed through sustained connection an car · u1 · ate d ti · llcuv wor s re er to those who reside on the land, get to know it we ' kipuka: kuleana to land 89 ·t (see appendix a). no hawaiian words describe relationships and protect ire established immediately on the basis of wealth or purchase. 1 ndthata . th . . . dl'c d to a . . of land emphasize at its spmt an 11e epend on pono (bal- cripuons 1 . d . pes d ·ust) actions of the peop e, sustame over time. hawai'i's state anced an j d by king kamehameha iii in 1843, is "ua mau ke ea o ka uttere . . . mott~,k no" ('the life of the land 1s perpetuated m nghteousness).4 for ,- · at apo . . atn .. the life of the people and the hfe of the land are intertwined. ifawanans, history of dispossession koe na'e ke kuleana o ke kiinaka reserving the rights of the people5 prior to western contact, all aina (land) in hawai'i was held in trust for akua (the gods) by the ali'i (ruling chiefs and chiefesses), who were respon- sible for allocating land to all of the people.6 the word kuleana described the "plots ofland given by the governing ali'i of an area ... to an 'ohana or an individual as their responsibility without right of ownership:'1 no one could own land, source of all sustenance, manifestation of deities and ancestors. though the ali'i of an area frequently changed, with land redistributed among the chiefly class, maka ainana families largely remained constant, passing on the lands they cared for to their descendants.8 there were no land titles in hawai'i until kamehameha iii privatized land through the mahele9 and the kuleana act, between 1846-1855. some scholars argue that kamehameha iii designed the mahele and the kuleana act to reflect hawaiian land practices and secure tenure for native families within an imposed private property regime.10 the king chose to apply the same word, kuleana, to the lands awarded to hawaiian families-includ- ing home sites, lo'i kalo (taro patches), salt pans, and even aina kai (ocean patches)-suggesting that the introduced western concept of ownership did not change the fundamental hawaiian view of the relationship between people and the aina they tended.11 however, the concept and process of awarding ownership under the kuleana act was very foreign. maka ainana had to register for ownership ~f their kuleana lands, pay to have that land surveyed, find two other na- tive residents as well as one "foreigner" or non-hawaiian citizen to tes- ti~-~n support of their claims, and, if awarded, pay taxes.12 hawaiian ma- ka aznana were awarded less than 1 percent of all land in hawai'i, with less than 29 percent of the eligible hawaiian population actually receiving title to land.13 90 chapter 5 though less than 1 percent of all aina was awarded to bawa" ka ainana in the small parcels known as kuleana, another 49 p uan ~q-.. . d ercent f land was kept with the hawauan king om government in tr o the . f h .. 14 h ust for ii cation to future generations o awauans. owever, as control a o. nance shifted from the hawaiian monarchy to american business :f gover. non-hawaiians increasingly acquired government lands for privatent;rests, the mahele changed the system ofland ownership, but the change. p 0fit.15 th f th m gove nance and, ultimately, the over row o e monarchy by the united s r- dosed off important intended means for hawaiian families to obta· tates, mal title to land, leading to dispossession of the hawaiian people. m for. the minority of hawaiian families who were awarded kuleana land ceived only quarter-acre house sites and agricultural plots that were m· s lr~-cu tj. vation, not fallowed, at the time of the land survey.16 these farm plots tended to be smaller than half an acre, though historically, families used and cared for much larger areas, mauka to makai (mountain to sea).17 ahupua'a resi- dents once accessed forest resources such as timber for canoes and home s, medicinal plants, freshwater springs, farmlands, reef areas, and nearshore waters for fishing and gathering seaweed within established palena (bound- aries ).18 while these palena sometimes corresponded with the boundaries of an ahupua'a, they were often smaller or larger, adapted to ecological con- ditions that shaped the productivity and availability of resources. though irregular and difficult to map, in the hawaiian mind, the palena within which a family could gather were dear, known, and understood by all who lived from the land. new systems of property ownership ignored historical boundaries of land use and the communities formed within them all\="" have="" remained="" on="" ancestr="" ama="" a="" century="" after="" the="" mabel="" 0="" olau="" wh="" ·="" ·="" ·="" f="" i="" d="" 3="" m="" i="" ·="" i="" h'="" ·="" e,="" desp·="" 0="" ing="" commod1ficat1on="" o="" an="" .="" u="" hp="" e="" 1stoncal="" mean="" f="" .="" ite="" ong="" s="" o="" d1sp="" o.="" continue,="" including="" burdensome="" property="" taxes,="" shrinkin="" °ssession="" ahupua="" a,="" and="" legal="" manipulation="" to="" target="" hawaiian="" family="" t:~:e;s="" 'within="" opment,="" along="" with="" newer="" threats="" such="" as="" termination="" of="" lo="" or="" deyel.="" ng-term="" i="" difficulties="" resolving="" interests="" of="" many="" descendant="" owners="" p="" .="" .="" eases,="" .="" .="" .="" ,="" nvatizar="" vistas="" and="" other="" culturally="" important="" sites,="" mcreased="" recreational="" 10n="" of="" competition="" with="" the="" wealthiest="" of="" global="" buyers.="" use,="" and="" despite="" these="" struggles,="" hawaiian="" fishing="" families,="" many="" of="" wh="" .="" .="" .="" h="" .="" omcanno="" longer="" live="" m="" their="" ancestral="" omes,="" contmue="" to="" find="" creative="" ways="" to="" re="" .="" dispossession="" and="" exercise="" kuleana="" that="" come="" with="" being="" of="" a="" place.="" 1="" ex="" sis!="" ine="" these="" efforts="" in="" light="" of="" the="" many="" hawaiian="" words="" and="" proverbs="" refer~="" to="" the="" people="" of="" a="" place.="" together,="" ancestral="" language="" and="" contempora="" actions="" illuminate="" kuleana="" that="" come="" with="" sustained="" connection="" to="" lanj:="" continuing="" genealogical="" ties,="" maintaining="" presence,="" perpetuating="" in-depth="" knowledge,="" caretaking,="" eating,="" and="" feeding.="" while="" community="" actions="" do="" not="" negate="" ongoing="" loss="" and="" injustice,="" these="" stories="" do="" offer="" possibilities:="" to="" restore="" lost="" connections,="" grow="" new="" ones,="" and="" build="" models="" that="" emphasize="" responsibility="" and="" caretaking="" oflands="" and="" resources,="" rather="" than="" ownership.="" i="" ka="" 'olelo="" no="" ke="" ola="" (in="" words="" there="" is="" life):="" insights="" into="" hawaiian="" relationships="" with="" .!\.ina="" hawaiian="" language="" has="" a="" variety="" of="" words="" that="" identify="" the="" different="" ~el~-="" tionships="" people="" have="" with="" a="" place,="" as="" well="" as="" their="" associated="" responsibil-="" ities.="" some="" words="" describe="" families="" who="" have="" lived="" on="" particular="" lands="" f;r="" generations="" (noho="" papa)="" or="" whose="" ancestors="" are="" buried="" there="" (ljiwi),="" ~h="" ;="" other="" words,="" such="" as="" hoa="" 'iiina="" (friend="" of="" the="" land)="" and="" kama'aina="" (child="" 0="" h="" l="" d)="" ·="" h="" lace="" where="" t="" e="" an="" ,="" can="" include="" those="" without="" genealogical="" ties="" to="" t="" e="" p="" dis·="" they="" were="" born="" or="" reside.="" these="" varied="" relationships="" to="" land="" each="" car_z="" nt="" t="" .="" k="" l="" d="" e="" dwere="" met="" u="" eana,="" expressed="" through="" sustained="" connection="" an="" car="" ·="" u1="" ·="" ate="" d="" ti="" ·="" llcuv="" wor="" s="" re="" er="" to="" those="" who="" reside="" on="" the="" land,="" get="" to="" know="" it="" we="" '="" kipuka:="" kuleana="" to="" land="" 89="" ·t="" (see="" appendix="" a).="" no="" hawaiian="" words="" describe="" relationships="" and="" protect="" ire="" established="" immediately="" on="" the="" basis="" of="" wealth="" or="" purchase.="" 1="" ndthata="" .="" th="" .="" .="" .="" dl'c="" d="" to="" a="" .="" .="" of="" land="" emphasize="" at="" its="" spmt="" an="" 11e="" epend="" on="" pono="" (bal-="" cripuons="" 1="" .="" d="" .="" pes="" d="" ·ust)="" actions="" of="" the="" peop="" e,="" sustame="" over="" time.="" hawai'i's="" state="" anced="" an="" j="" d="" by="" king="" kamehameha="" iii="" in="" 1843,="" is="" "ua="" mau="" ke="" ea="" o="" ka="" uttere="" .="" .="" .="" mott~,k="" no"="" ('the="" life="" of="" the="" land="" 1s="" perpetuated="" m="" nghteousness).4="" for="" ,-="" ·="" at="" apo="" .="" .="" atn="" ..="" the="" life="" of="" the="" people="" and="" the="" hfe="" of="" the="" land="" are="" intertwined.="" ifawanans,="" history="" of="" dispossession="" koe="" na'e="" ke="" kuleana="" o="" ke="" kiinaka="" reserving="" the="" rights="" of="" the="" people5="" prior="" to="" western="" contact,="" all="" aina="" (land)="" in="" hawai'i="" was="" held="" in="" trust="" for="" akua="" (the="" gods)="" by="" the="" ali'i="" (ruling="" chiefs="" and="" chiefesses),="" who="" were="" respon-="" sible="" for="" allocating="" land="" to="" all="" of="" the="" people.6="" the="" word="" kuleana="" described="" the="" "plots="" ofland="" given="" by="" the="" governing="" ali'i="" of="" an="" area="" ...="" to="" an="" 'ohana="" or="" an="" individual="" as="" their="" responsibility="" without="" right="" of="" ownership:'1="" no="" one="" could="" own="" land,="" source="" of="" all="" sustenance,="" manifestation="" of="" deities="" and="" ancestors.="" though="" the="" ali'i="" of="" an="" area="" frequently="" changed,="" with="" land="" redistributed="" among="" the="" chiefly="" class,="" maka="" ainana="" families="" largely="" remained="" constant,="" passing="" on="" the="" lands="" they="" cared="" for="" to="" their="" descendants.8="" there="" were="" no="" land="" titles="" in="" hawai'i="" until="" kamehameha="" iii="" privatized="" land="" through="" the="" mahele9="" and="" the="" kuleana="" act,="" between="" 1846-1855.="" some="" scholars="" argue="" that="" kamehameha="" iii="" designed="" the="" mahele="" and="" the="" kuleana="" act="" to="" reflect="" hawaiian="" land="" practices="" and="" secure="" tenure="" for="" native="" families="" within="" an="" imposed="" private="" property="" regime.10="" the="" king="" chose="" to="" apply="" the="" same="" word,="" kuleana,="" to="" the="" lands="" awarded="" to="" hawaiian="" families-includ-="" ing="" home="" sites,="" lo'i="" kalo="" (taro="" patches),="" salt="" pans,="" and="" even="" aina="" kai="" (ocean="" patches)-suggesting="" that="" the="" introduced="" western="" concept="" of="" ownership="" did="" not="" change="" the="" fundamental="" hawaiian="" view="" of="" the="" relationship="" between="" people="" and="" the="" aina="" they="" tended.11="" however,="" the="" concept="" and="" process="" of="" awarding="" ownership="" under="" the="" kuleana="" act="" was="" very="" foreign.="" maka="" ainana="" had="" to="" register="" for="" ownership="" ~f="" their="" kuleana="" lands,="" pay="" to="" have="" that="" land="" surveyed,="" find="" two="" other="" na-="" tive="" residents="" as="" well="" as="" one="" "foreigner"="" or="" non-hawaiian="" citizen="" to="" tes-="" ti~-~n="" support="" of="" their="" claims,="" and,="" if="" awarded,="" pay="" taxes.12="" hawaiian="" ma-="" ka="" aznana="" were="" awarded="" less="" than="" 1="" percent="" of="" all="" land="" in="" hawai'i,="" with="" less="" than="" 29="" percent="" of="" the="" eligible="" hawaiian="" population="" actually="" receiving="" title="" to="" land.13="" 90="" chapter="" 5="" though="" less="" than="" 1="" percent="" of="" all="" aina="" was="" awarded="" to="" bawa"="" ka="" ainana="" in="" the="" small="" parcels="" known="" as="" kuleana,="" another="" 49="" p="" uan="" ~q-..="" .="" d="" ercent="" f="" land="" was="" kept="" with="" the="" hawauan="" king="" om="" government="" in="" tr="" o="" the="" .="" f="" h="" ..="" 14="" h="" ust="" for="" ii="" cation="" to="" future="" generations="" o="" awauans.="" owever,="" as="" control="" a="" o.="" nance="" shifted="" from="" the="" hawaiian="" monarchy="" to="" american="" business="" :f="" gover.="" non-hawaiians="" increasingly="" acquired="" government="" lands="" for="" privatent;rests,="" the="" mahele="" changed="" the="" system="" ofland="" ownership,="" but="" the="" change.="" p="" 0fit.15="" th="" f="" th="" m="" gove="" nance="" and,="" ultimately,="" the="" over="" row="" o="" e="" monarchy="" by="" the="" united="" s="" r-="" dosed="" off="" important="" intended="" means="" for="" hawaiian="" families="" to="" obta·="" tates,="" mal="" title="" to="" land,="" leading="" to="" dispossession="" of="" the="" hawaiian="" people.="" m="" for.="" the="" minority="" of="" hawaiian="" families="" who="" were="" awarded="" kuleana="" land="" ceived="" only="" quarter-acre="" house="" sites="" and="" agricultural="" plots="" that="" were="" m·="" s="" lr~-cu="" tj.="" vation,="" not="" fallowed,="" at="" the="" time="" of="" the="" land="" survey.16="" these="" farm="" plots="" tended="" to="" be="" smaller="" than="" half="" an="" acre,="" though="" historically,="" families="" used="" and="" cared="" for="" much="" larger="" areas,="" mauka="" to="" makai="" (mountain="" to="" sea).17="" ahupua'a="" resi-="" dents="" once="" accessed="" forest="" resources="" such="" as="" timber="" for="" canoes="" and="" home="" s,="" medicinal="" plants,="" freshwater="" springs,="" farmlands,="" reef="" areas,="" and="" nearshore="" waters="" for="" fishing="" and="" gathering="" seaweed="" within="" established="" palena="" (bound-="" aries="" ).18="" while="" these="" palena="" sometimes="" corresponded="" with="" the="" boundaries="" of="" an="" ahupua'a,="" they="" were="" often="" smaller="" or="" larger,="" adapted="" to="" ecological="" con-="" ditions="" that="" shaped="" the="" productivity="" and="" availability="" of="" resources.="" though="" irregular="" and="" difficult="" to="" map,="" in="" the="" hawaiian="" mind,="" the="" palena="" within="" which="" a="" family="" could="" gather="" were="" dear,="" known,="" and="" understood="" by="" all="" who="" lived="" from="" the="" land.="" new="" systems="" of="" property="" ownership="" ignored="" historical="" boundaries="" of="" land="" use="" and="" the="" communities="" formed="" within="">