I need to have my Chapter 4 and 5 reviewed and edited using themes in a qualitative study. Do you write a narrative in APA for this type of paper?

Proposal
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EXPLORING THE IMPACT OF PBIS, RTI, AND MTSS IMPLEMENTATION ON CLASSROOM TIME, STUDENT BEHAVIOR, AND ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT: A PHENOMENOLOGICAL STUDY
by
Robert L. Pettit
Liberty University
A Dissertation Presented in Partial Fulfillment
Of the Requirements for the Degree
Doctor of Education
Liberty University
Graduation Year
2023
PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT: A KEY TO SUCCESS IN TIERED EDUCATION
by Robert L. Pettit
A Dissertation Presented in Partial Fulfillment
Of the Requirements for the Degree
Doctor of Education
Liberty University, Lynchburg, VA
Graduation Year
2023
APPROVED BY:
Janet S. Deck, Ed. D., Committee Chair
Melissa V. Wells, Ph.D., Committee Member
Abstract
The purpose of this phenomenological study was to discover how elementary schools implement evidence-based, multi-tiered programs (i.e., Multi-Tiered System of Support (MTSS) to improve students’ academic and behavioral successes. Today’s teachers are expected to have a constantly expanding knowledge base and skills that support working within a Multi-Tiered System of Supports, including Response to Intervention (MTSS/RTI). Since the reauthorization of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) in 2004 and subsequent regulations that allowed school districts to use alternate processes for determining learning disabilities, implementing Multi-Tiered Systems of Support (MTSS) and Response to Intervention (RTI) frameworks in preschool to 12th grade (PK-12) schools has steadily increased. However, most teachers lack the skills and training to implement them successfully. The focus of recent field-based professional development activities is the current teaching force. Most PK-12 schools, however, require an entering teacher to gain this knowledge and skills during their teacher preparation program. Unresponsiveness to instructional interventions is a Multi-Tiered Systems of Support and Response to Intervention concepts. The Multi-Tiered System of Supports and Interventions (MTSS/RTI) is composed of several tiers that encompass classroom experiences, elucidate interventions, and delineate behaviors that foster learning opportunities. The study investigates behavioral observation to inform steps that could be taken for children who are not responding to elementary school to middle school literacy instruction to fill this information gap in the MTSS-RTI decision-making process and proposes the central research question: How do general education elementary school teachers implement tier one, tier two, and tier three of the MTSS/RTI model while delivering differentiated core curriculum instruction in both academics and behavior?    Comment by Deck, Janet Sue (Doctor of Education): Change to past tense since your study is completed.    Comment by Pettit, Robert Lawrence: changed
Keywords: MTSS, RTI, PBIS, professional development, language and literacy, instruction, child academic engagement
Copyright Page
Copyright 2023, Robert L. Pettit
Dedication
The completion of this dissertation would not have been possible without the love and encouragement of my loved ones and the prayers of my coworkers and friends. I owe a debt of gratitude to my family—my wife, Janet, and my children, Perri, Bentli, Quinn, and Sydni—for having faith in me during this endeavor.
Acknowledgments
I am grateful for my professional reviewers and field testers who read my manuscript and gave their comments, assisting me in completing this project. In particular, I want to give my appreciation and heartfelt thanks to Dr. Paige Rapson and Dr. Janet Deck for getting me to the finish line. I would also like to give thanks to all the other professors in my program who took time out to help me achieve this goal. Thank You!
Table of Contents
Abstract    3
Copyright Page    5
Dedication    6
Acknowledgments    7
Table of Contents    8
List of Tables    13
List of Figures    14
List of Abbreviations    15
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION    16
Overview    16
Background    16
Historical Context    17
Social Context    20
Theoretical Context    22
Problem Statement    23
Purpose Statement    26
Significance of the Study    26
Research Questions    29
Central Research Question    29
Sub-Question One    29
Sub-Question Two    29
Sub-Question Three    29
Definitions    29
Summary    30
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW    31
Overview    31
Theoretical Framework    31
Related Literature    36
Summary    60
CHAPTER THREE: METHODS    63
Overview    63
Research Design    64
Research Questions    69
Central Research Question    69
Sub-Question One    70
Sub-Question Two    70
Sub-Question Three    70
Setting and Participants    70
Setting    70
Participants    73
Researcher Positionality    74
Interpretive Framework    75
Philosophical Assumptions    75
Researcher’s Role    77
Procedures    79
Permissions    79
Recruitment Plan    80
Data Collection Plan    80
RTI Beliefs Survey    81
Semi-Structured Interviews    84
Observations    85
Focus Groups Data Collection Approach    86
Data Synthesis    89
Trustworthiness    90
Credibility    90
Transferability    91
Dependability    91
Confirmability    91
Ethical Considerations    92
Summary    92
CHAPTER FOUR: FINDINGS    94
Overview    94
Participants    95
Results    98
Central Research Question    98
Sub-Question One    99
Sub-Question Two    100
Sub-Question Three    100
Theme Advancement    101
Theme 2: Teachers Need the Support From Their Administration and Peers to Fully Implement RTI/MTSS    105
Theme 3: Teachers Must Have Effective Intervention Strategies to use in Their Classrooms    108
Summary    109
CHAPTER FIVE: CONCLUSION    111
Overview    111
Discussion    111
Interpretation of Findings    111
Implications for Policy or Practice    114
Theoretical and Empirical Implications    115
Limitations and Delimitations    116
Conclusion    117
References    119
Appendix A    146
Appendix B    148
Appendix C    151
Appendix D    152
Appendix E    156
Appendix F    158
Appendix G    160
List of Tables
Table 1. Open-Ended Interview Questions………………………………………………………70
Table 2. Open-Ended Focus Group Questions.………………………………………………….73
Table 3. Participant Demographics………………………………………………………………85
Table 4. Theme Development……………………………………………………………………94
List of Figures
Figure 1. MTSS Under the Umbrella…………..........................................................................18
Figure 2. Comprehensive, Integrated, Three-Tiered Model of Prevention.................................19
Figure 3. Washington State MTSS Framework……………………………...............................35
Figure 4. MTSS Support Model...…………………………........................................................53
List of Abbreviations
Association of Christian Schools International (ACSI)
Effective Behavioral and Instructional Support Systems (EBISS)
Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA)
English as a Second Language (ESL)
Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA)
Individuals with Disabilities in Education Act (IDEA)
Local Education Agency (LEA)
Multi-Tiered Support Systems (MTSS)
National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP)
National Association of School Psychologists (NASP)
National Center for Education Evaluation and Regional Assistance (NCEE)
National Center for Education Statistics (NCES)
No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB)
Office of Superintendent of Public Instruction (OSPI)
Positive Behavioral Intervention and Supports (PBIS)
Professional Learning Communities (PLCs)
Response to Intervention (RTI)
Specific Learning Disorder (SLD)
Special Education (SPED)
State Educational Agency (SEA)
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
Overview
The purpose of the Multi-Tiered System of Support (MTSS) is to provide early screening and targeted interventions to students who are struggling both behaviorally and academically (Cruz & Rodl, 2018). Implementation of Multi-Tiered Systems of Support (MTSS) and Response to Intervention (RTI) frameworks in preschool to 12th grade (PK-12) schools has steadily increased, expanding the knowledge base and skills of today’s teachers. This system allows the educators to monitor the benchmarks and current achievement gap. The framework will enable teachers to identify students who are not performing at their best and provide the necessary knowledge using academic and behavioral strategies. These approaches influence teachers to use innovative teaching strategies to help students grasp information faster and make their concepts more straightforward.
Chapter 1 introduces the study. The chapter commences by expounding on the study’s background, with specific attention to the historical, social, and theoretical frameworks. The problem statement scrutinizes the breadth of the recent literature on RTI, along with teachers’ perceptions of its implementation and effectiveness. In addition to discussing the problem statement and goal of the study, this chapter introduces the research questions that leads the investigation. The chapter concludes with a discussion of the significance of the study and a glossary of common terms.
Background
Members of the educational community have argued about educational options for challenging children since the 1960s, and they are concerned about the rapidly growing number of students enrolled in special education programs (Jahnukainen & Itkonen, 2015). Following the Individuals with Disabilities in Education Act (IDEA) in 2004, a recommendation was made to use RTI. RTI is a research-based, tiered academic and social assistance system that provides academic or social intervention based on a student’s specific area (s) of need. This approach enables educators to work with and identify struggling students earlier by allowing them to close the gap between benchmarks and current achievement. In the event that educators of general education are unable to aid pupils in bridging the academic disparities in communication, knowledge, skills, motivation, and environment. Students are often referred to special education programs prematurely because they do not get the data necessary to assess them for referral adequately. The pre-referral process ensures the child has tried reasonable accommodations and modifications before being referred for special education evaluation. Occasionally, a change in the classroom can improve their performance and eliminate the need for special education services. However, eligibility criteria under the IDEA are decided on a dichotomous basis, using arbitrarily determined cutoff points: either a student is or is not disabled and, as a result, is or is not eligible for services. In fact, a child’s placement in a special education program is frequently determined by just one point on an IQ test or another type of standardized test (Morgan, 2021).
Historical Context
Researchers and educators have seen significant improvements in student outcomes due to federal special education legislation. Over-identification of academic and behaviorally challenged students, such as special education students, sparked the creation of RTI. As a result of the discrepancy model’s flaws, various scholars began working on this model beginning in the late 1970s. RTI has existed for some time, but it was not recognized as a formal program until President Bush signed the No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB) in 2001, which required educators to incorporate scientifically based research into their instruction and intervention strategies (Thorius & Sullivan, 2013; Voulgarides et al., 2017). Former President Obama signed the Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA) on December 10, 2015, to replace the No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB). The legislation aimed to ensure that all students have unrestricted access to a free and appropriate public education regardless of aptitude. RTI was authorized to be used indefinitely as part of IDEA (2004), and a multi-tiered support system establishes a means of securing additional assistance for all students, reducing the number of students receiving additional education services referrals, and lowering the overall costs of special education services (Jahnukainen & Itkonen, 2015).
The RTI framework originates in multiple domains, including learning disorders, behavioral consulting, and data-driven program modification (Bergan, 1977; Deno & Mirkin, 1977). Figure 1 represents the concept of using a multi-tiered approach in general education classrooms and was first proposed in 1982, but it was not until more than a decade later that the idea of using a multi-tiered approach in general education classrooms was revised at the federal level (Fuchs & Fuchs, 2019). Parents’ groups and educational psychology have impacted RTI (Preston et al., 2016). However, Heller et al. (National Research Council, 1982) were among the first researchers to conceptualize RTI’s origins in their theory that general education teachers are ultimately responsible for providing multiple interventions to struggling academic and behavioral students and documenting student progress within these interventions (Preston et al., 2016).
Figure 1
MTSS Under the Umbrella
Note. From “MTSS Chapter.” (n.d.). Ceedar.education.ufl.edu. Retrieved 29 August 2022, from https://ceedar.education.ufl.edu/mtss-udl-di-dev/MTSSchapterStart.html#mtssIntro    Comment by Deck, Janet Sue (Doctor of Education): If you copy/pasted, you need copyright permission.    Comment by Robert Pettit: This was an open source image but I emaild them to get permission to use it.
According to Gartland. (2020), to reduce the over-identification of students for special education, general education teachers must follow established protocols before referring a student to special education. A child’s potential is not determined by their starting point but by how much they improve as a result of being taught (Gartland & Strosnider, 2020). The tiered intervention approach in special education has its roots in the preventive models used by the social and health services administration (Zhang et al., 2019).
Illustrated in Figure 2, three levels of prevention are proposed; Kauffman, one of the first researchers to recognize the direct use of these three levels of prevention in the context of special education (SPED) interventions aimed at addressing emotional and behavioral disorders (primary, secondary, and tertiary prevention; Kauffman 2021; Zigmond & Kloo, 2011).
Primary Prevention (Tier 1): The focus is on the entire class. All students are taught using methods that have been shown in studies to be effective.
Secondary Prevention (Tier 2): Interventions are held in Small Groups. Some students receive more individualized assistance in small groups.
Tertiary Prevention (Tier 3): Individualized, intensive assistance is provided, usually with one-on-one support.
Figure 2
Positive Behavior Support Model

Note. From “Positive Behavior Support Model,” by Lane et al.(2009). Ci3t.org. https://www.ci3t.org/
The MTSS is a comprehensive framework that provides individualized support for all students. It centers on helping the “whole child” through academic, behavioral, social, and emotional services, whether the learner is advanced or struggling. These levels of support also represent the Three-Tiered Model of Prevention for RTI and MTSS.
Social Context
The No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB) made significant and far-reaching reforms to the educational system in the United States, increasing pressure on general education instructors to highlight the significance of providing high-quality, research-based instruction and interventions to all of their students (Klotz & Canter, 2007). Additionally, it established the practice of holding schools and teachers formally accountable for their students’ progress every year through the use of mandated standardized assessments, and it mandated that special education students not only have access to the general education curriculum but also participate in all standardized assessments (Jahnukainen & Itkonen, 2015). As part of the NCLB accountability movement, control of schools that did not improve their performance standards had to shift from local school districts to the state level. As a result, scholars have described the current tiered RTI approach as a shift in the focus of special education away from civil rights and toward educational excellence and accountability (Itkonen, 2009; Jahnukainen & Itkonen, 2015).
When IDEA was reauthorized in 2004, schools were permitted to include an assessment of a child’s response to scientific, research-based intervention as part of the evaluation process (614[6]B) when identifying pupils with learning disabilities (614[6]B). The reauthorization, which enabled states to adopt RTI for both prevention and detection of learning problems, was spurred by rising concerns that the previously used IQ-achievement discrepancy approach had devolved into a “wait and see” strategy (Dawkins, 2020; Jahnukainen & Itkonen, 2015; Kovaleski et al,.2103; Reschly, 2005; Voulgarides et al., 2017; Zigmond & Kloo, 2011). In numerous situations, children had to fall so far behind their peers and “fail” before receiving aid or interventions, and for many of them, the academic gap had grown so significant and evident that closing it was practically impossible.
Due to the disparity model’s omission of evidence-based therapies and instructional response, teachers typically struggled to differentiate between struggling children. It was especially important because the children had not responded to treatments and were still failing as a result of insufficient classroom instruction (Vellutino et al., 1996; Voulgarides et al., 2017). RTI proponents claimed instructors would more accurately distinguish which students have an actual disability than pupils who had just not gotten evidence-based education by employing a multi-tiered response approach. Schools must employ a continuum of systematic, coordinated, evidence-based strategies to respond to the different intensity of demands that children have connected to their academic and social-emotional/behavioral development to implement MTSS successfully.
Theoretical Context
On April 11, 1965, Lyndon B. Johnson signed the Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA, 1965) after decades of congressional attempts and failures to pass educational legislation. The statute restructured the federal government’s educational role. It offered cash to upgrade school libraries, perform educational research, and assist economically underprivileged and disabled pupils (Nelson, 2016). The new law enhanced the federal government’s investment in education to ensure that places with many economically disadvantaged pupils receive a high-quality education (ESEA, 1965). Two objectives were accomplished through the use of RTIs. First, to meet the needs of special education students who required structured support in general education academic classroom settings, the primary objective stated was to provide those supports. Second, the objective of RTI was to decrease the number of children identified for special education review by emphasizing teamwork and data-driven decision-making to increase overall student accomplishment. When student demonstrated the need for further academic help, school employees were willing to offer special education evaluations in place of classroom or school-supported interventions.
According to educational researchers such as Fuchs and Fuchs (2019), early identification of students at risk of falling into a risk zone or who have learning disabilities and research-based instruction is a frequently discussed topic among various educational experts. One unintended consequence of this method of determining needs was that students of color and low-income families were commonly over-identified as impaired and needed special education services. According to the 2019 Nation’s Report Card for the National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP), only 34% of eighth-grade students performed at or above the competent level on NAEP reading examinations; this percentage decreased by 3% from 2017 (National Center for Educational Statistics, 2019). These vulnerable children graduate from middle school unable to comprehend and expand on the material and terminology of their other studies.
RTI was created to meet the needs of children enrolled in special education, Title I, Title III, English language learners, gifted and talented programs, and other special education programs. National database data indicate that overrepresentation and under-serving minorities remain a concern, notwithstanding changes in state policy and legislative initiatives to ensure equal access to the general education curriculum and to limit placement in special education programs (Bell, 2017; IDEA, 2004; McCart & Miller, 2019; Sugai et al., 2010; Witzel & Blackburn, 2018).
Problem Statement
The problem is transitioning all students who meet the benchmarks from elementary to middle school or middle to high school; the following assumptions should be considered: (a) do pupils receive the same level of help in MTSS/RTI? and (b) how can the implementation of an MTSS curriculum with (middle/high school) children be defined as not being grade-level? (Braun et al., 2020; Choi et al., 2019; Wexler, 2018). Braun et al. (2020) emphasized this problem, stating that when working within the MTSS framework, teachers were frequently confused about the procedures and their ability to strengthen interventions to fit the requirements of their pupils.
The primary objective is to determine the main focus of the necessary interventions. If the needs are only academic, then the intervention team focuses on academics; if the need is only social/emotional, then the intervention team focuses on the function of the behaviors and developing interventions to promote alternate behaviors. The students with both academic and social needs require an improve advocacy efforts, including family–school collaboration and what teachers can identify in the profession’s scope (Haley & Allstopp, 2019). Recommendations for improvement typically originate from either the perspective of families or that of teachers. Investigation into whether the struggle with academics is increasing frustration and behaviors or if the social behaviors are impeding the students’ access to academics. However, the issue with RTI is that most students can make significant progress at the first level using high-quality instruction to aid children in catching up (Choi et al., 2020; McCart & Miller, 2019). Students who require further support can receive it at the second and third levels of the RTI program. An MTSS is more comprehensive than a one-tier support system. It may combine all three RTI levels concurrently. RTI encompasses more than academics; it includes social and emotional support (National Association of School Psychologists, 2016).
Federal teacher recruitment and training involvement has grown significantly over the past decade. Nevertheless, for more than five decades, the federal government has implemented regulations that oversee teacher training and hiring, as noted by Wei et al. 2009). Notwithstanding the changes in laws, insufficient research has equipped lawmakers with a structure for drafting these laws. In addition, it provides opportunities for educators to further their professional development. The primary focus of MTSS lies in developing adult interaction strategies that aid children facing difficulties. Integrating the RTI framework and the MTSS approach is a viable prospect.
The two concepts may have become inextricably linked, which could explain the discrepancy. Regardless of whether it utilizes RTI, multi-tiered support systems, or a combination of both, the aim of every educational institution is to guarantee that all students receive the essential interventions to excel academically. There are two forms of assistance: academic assistance and social and emotional assistance (Hannigan et al., 2020). Nevertheless, the problem with Response to Intervention (RTI) lies in the fact that most students can achieve remarkable advancement in the initial stage, which emphasizes delivering top-notch education to assist children in keeping pace with their peers. Students who request more intensive support at the second and third stages of the RTI process will receive proper instruction. MTSS is detailed and adds a comprehensive and responsive framework for systemically addressing barriers to student learning. The grouping could include any three RTI levels as well and in-depth planning from the professional learning teams at each grade level (Sink, 2016). MTSS/RTI encompasses more than academic and social and emotional support for students and the support needed by staff to plan for their students’ needs and implement researched interventions with fidelity. Adults and children in school can and should be included in the MTSS process (Hannigan et al., 2020). MTSS and professional development comprises continual education and training for teachers.
Whether it uses RTI, MTSS, or both, the purpose of any school is to ensure that all children receive the necessary interventions to succeed in school. Additionally, MTSS focuses on creating collaborative techniques for adults to assist children with difficulties. The RTI framework can be used in conjunction with an MTSS technique, and that the two concepts have become so inextricably linked is one of the reasons for their mutual relationship.
Purpose Statement
The purpose of this phenomenological study was to explore how teachers implement RTI and MTSS and how this implementation affects classroom time, student behavior, and student achievement. The study looks at how teachers are utilizing PBIS, RTI, and MTSS and the professional development to apply these strategies in classroom duration, student conduct, and academic achievement objectives.
Significance of the Study
The significance of the study is that, previously, schools applied a discrepancy model to establish special education and related program eligibility. The paradigm of “wait to fail” was observed by special education teams and school districts, as it failed to effectively cater to the requirements of students. Furthermore, the correlation between MTSS and the dissimilarities in RTI academics instruction and performance for at-risk and low-aptitude students remained unclear. For this reason, a need exists to investigate how professional development, current teaching practices, and policies relating to teachers’ accountability and incentives may or may not align with quality teaching. MTSS stands out as one of the most contemporary and extensively applied programs for improving the academic success of all students by addressing their unique needs. MTSS is growing in popularity (Fien et al., 2021). When applied two ideas, products, and programs, diffusion of innovation theory can explain how an idea, product, or program acquires traction before being adopted by a specific community. Diffusion of Innovation (2018) describes innovation in education as changes implemented within the school environment, which can range from minor curriculum adjustments to significant social shifts in the school culture.
LaMorte (2019) defined diffusion as when a specific population adopts innovation and begins to act in a new way due to the innovation. When the Diffusion of Innovation theory is applied to the adoption of the MTSS/RTI framework in the school setting, it becomes clear how essential teachers’ perceptions of the process are to its successful implementation, as these perceptions determine whether the targeted population eventually adopts the innovation of RTI or not. Despite being strongly promoted or enforced by certain states or school districts, the adoption of MTSS or the RTI project for educational transformation is often met with reluctance by teachers and school personnel (Avant & Lindsey, 2015). The extent to which schools make decisions that benefit the entire school community during the implementation of reform efforts is positively related to the amount of information they have on the perceptions of the critical stakeholders.
Teachers are critical stakeholders in any educational reform effort and understanding and successfully implementing such broad-reaching reforms as the RTI program relies on their perceptions of the program. Teachers’ impressions and opinions are becoming increasingly irrelevant as new educational reforms make their way through the public school system (Evans, 2017). As a result, addressing teachers’ perceptions and concerns is critical to ensure that the RTI program is effectively implemented (Rinaldi et al., 2011; Shirley & Hargreaves, 2006; Werts et al., 2014).
Policies and education professionals can acquire valuable insight from teachers’ attitudes and voices to prepare teachers for the effective implementation of programs such as RTI (Alahmari, 2019). Even though understanding teachers’ perspectives is an essential aspect of the RTI framework, teachers’ thoughts and opinions are frequently overlooked (Lally, 2017). As with many other educational programs, there is still a gap between research and practice with RTI (Crone et al., 2019; Kearney & Childs, 2021). Many RTI-related studies have focused on student growth and development (Konopaseki et al., 2016; Zvoch, 2016). Other studies have focused on teachers’ ability to effectively implement the process (Sullivan et al., 2015; Thorius & Tan, 2015). In 25 school districts, the Effective Behavioral and Instructional Support Systems (EBISS) initiative was adopted. The implementation science perspective, the program instructed and mentored district leaders and teachers to use the EBISS model (Chaparro et al., 2019). However, few studies like (Simonsen & Sugai 2013; Guage, 2017; Kim, et al., 2018) have focused solely on teachers’ perceptions of RTI. The few studies conducted do not provide sufficient information or guidance to better understand teachers’ views or inform professional development (Haley & Allstopp, 2019; August et al., 2018).
The current study was completed to help fill a research gap in teachers’ perceptions of RTI and how various factors may influence such perceptions as identified in the literature. By examining the impact Of delivery on special education services, the gaps in delivery, and the tracking of students’ development, this study benefited all stakeholders involved. By understanding the influence of this study, teachers, students, support staff, administration, and parents will have benefited from it. The researcher hopes that the findings of this study will help educators plan and prepare for the support, resources, and professional development needed to make RTI more effective in the classroom. The confusion and lack of standardization in the application of RTI or MTSS is detrimental to the student experience. The confusion and lack of standardization is especially detrimental for students who require greater assistance but do not exhibit a condition requiring special education accommodations. The research was done to facilitate open communication among staff members to improve the process. The research has guided the decision-making process for the future of RTI and the identifying procedure for children who require special services.    Comment by Deck, Janet Sue (Doctor of Education) [2]: This paragraph is a little underdeveloped. Maybe one more sentence?    Comment by Robert Pettit: reworked    Comment by Deck, Janet Sue (Doctor of Education): Avoid using demonstrative pronouns. The antecedent can be unclear.    Comment by Robert Pettit: fixed
Research Questions
The study’s research questions focus on how elementary school general education teachers described their implementation of the MTSS/RTI approach while delivering diversified core curriculum instruction. The following research questions were used to guide the study.
Central Research Question
How do general education elementary school teachers implement tier one, tier two, and tier three of the MTSS/RTI model while delivering differentiated core curriculum instruction?
Sub-Question One
    What strategies were given to teachers in their training to assist them in implementing RTI/MTSS effectively?
Sub-Question Two
    How do teachers’ perspectives affect the level of buy-in and comprehension of MTSS implementation?
Sub-Question Three
How does professional development assist both the teacher and the student’s success?
Definitions
1. Multi-Tiered Systems of Support (MTSS) – A Multi-Tiered System of Support is a term used to describe an evidence-based model that uses database problem solving to integrate academic and behavioral instruction and intervention. The integrated instruction and intervention are delivered to students in varying intensities (multiple tiers) based on student needs (Hannington et al., 2020).
2. Positive Behavior Intervention Support (PBIS) – is an evidence-based three-tiered framework to improve and integrate all of the data, systems, and practices affecting student outcomes every day. PBIS creates schools where all students succeed (Hannington et al., 2020; Witzel et al., 2018).
3. Response to Intervention (RTI) – is a multi-tier approach to the early identification and support of students with learning and behavioral needs. The RTI process begins with high-quality instruction and universal screening of all children in the general education classroom (Hannington et al., 2020; Witzel et al., 2018).
4. Specific-Learning Disability (SLD)–is a disability that affects one or more of the basic psychological processes involved in understanding or using spoken or written language, resulting in an impaired ability to listen, think, speak, read, write, spell, or perform mathematical calculations (Hannington et al., 2020).
Summary
The perceptions of professional school employees are critical in determining the success and problems of the RTI initiative. This study addressed the problem of instructors lacking emotional and tangible support from their schools while exerting the time, energy, and resources essential for successfully implementing the MTSS framework’s components (King et al., 2012). In addition, this chapter introduced the research problem, its significance, questions, and the theoretical framework for this study covered in it. This study was completed to help all professionals better understand the differences in perceptions they have about the RTI model that is currently in place, and it allows the district and others outside of the study to make some recommendations about the efficacy of RTI/MTSS.
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW
Overview
A systematic literature review was conducted to explore continuing educators’ professional development decision-making process in RTI/MTSS frameworks. Positive Behavior Interventions and Supports (PBIS), Multi-Tiered System of Supports (MTSS), and School-wide Positive Behavior Intervention Support (SWPBIS) all contribute to the alteration of behavior in a classroom environment. Educators widely regard RTI/MTSS as a school-wide program that prevents and intervenes to improve academic achievement and student well-being. Historically, schools may have used a wait-to-fail strategy in which pupils did not receive the necessary services in a timely manner (Blackburn & Witzel, 2018). RTI/MTSS are associated with the support systems for educators and their students and how technology affects the social aspects of education. The first section discussed the theories relevant to the theory of learning, including behavioral and social identity theory, and the following section synthesized recent literature regarding the social aspects of the educator’s continuing to enhance their professional development skills and expertise. A gap in the literature is identified, presenting a need for current and future studies.
Theoretical Framework
Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory of Effectiveness collaborates to construct the conceptual framework and provides a primary lens through which we view phenomena in this study. However, following a theoretical framework can lead to informed decision making that allows for better control over the achieved results (McEwen & Wills, 2007). According to Social Cognitive Theory, human behavior is the result of a reciprocal link between behavior and the environment (Bandura, 1986). MTSS is a framework that encompasses both RTI and PBIS. Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports (PBIS) is a multi-tiered framework for behavioral supports, whereas Response to Intervention (RTI) is a multi-tiered framework for academic supports. Tier 1 (school-wide), Tier 2 (targeted), and Tier 3 (individual) assistance levels the emphasis of Response to Intervention (RTI) and Positive Behavior Interventions and Supports (PBIS).    Comment by Deck, Janet Sue (Doctor of Education): Fix format    Comment by Robert Pettit: fixed
The review covers the RTI/MTSS framework as a comprehensive framework for addressing children’s and youth’s academic, social, emotional, and behavioral development. It encompasses many academic disciplines, including psychology, sociology, neuroscience, and education.
Beginning with the 2015 school year, the Obama administration adopted a new guideline to standardize the methods utilized by state and local agencies “with the purpose of improving equity under IDEA” (USDOE, Dec. 2016). The policy mandates states to “identify and address the factors contributing to the large disparity, which may include economic, cultural, or language challenges to appropriate identification or placement in certain educational settings” (USDOE, Dec. 2016). According to the United States Department of Education (2019), the once-reasonably secure position of the United States in the world is now threatened by other countries’ scrutiny when it comes to providing a solid education for all. In addition, the report emphasized that education is a necessary investment for success in the digital age. The legislative initiative acquired considerable momentum and has not abated. The National Center for Education Statistics (2019), enrollment in public prekindergarten through eighth-grade education increased from 35.39 million in the fall of 2015 to 35.48 million in the fall of 2016.    Comment by Deck, Janet Sue (Doctor of Education): Obama was not in office during 2018-19.    Comment by Robert Pettit: I don’t know how it changed from 2015
The RTI/MTSS framework integrates a continuum of system-wide resources, strategies, structures, and evidence-based practices for addressing barriers to student learning and discipline. Response to intervention (RTI) is a framework many schools use to assist students who are struggling academically. RTI has three levels of intervention. RTI typically employs a school-wide, three-tiered approach to assess students’ progress frequently and deliver interventions to aid them in meeting grade-level standards (Hilton, 2007). General education teachers are responsible for using research-based instructional practices within Tiers 1 and 2. If a student does not respond to specific individualized interventions, teachers can refer them for special education based on the principles of RTI and positive behavioral interventions and supports. (PBIS; Anderson, 2008; Bandura, 1977; Picciano, 2017). The discussion included other theories concerning online education. These theories emphasize the significance of creating the foundation for further conversation.
A multi-tiered support system (MTSS) is comprehensive and could include all three RTI levels. However, MTSS is more than just academic. It also includes social and emotional assistance, which may include a behavioral intervention plan. Additionally, MTSS includes adults in the classroom as well. It includes teacher professional development. MTSS also focuses on finding ways for adults to work together to assist struggling children. The RTI framework can be used in conjunction with an MTSS approach. The approach is the reason the two concepts have become so inextricably linked. Understanding how the school implements RTI or MTSS can help parents advocate for their children. Whether the school employs RTI, MTSS, or both, the objective is to ensure that all students receive the necessary education.
Positive Behavior Interventions and Supports (PBIS), Multi-Tiered System of Support (MTSS), and Response to Intervention programs are policy-based strategies that enhance the school’s role in social skills and behavior assistance (Eun, 2018; Michie et al., 2017). The frameworks develop strategies to transform unwanted behavior into more desirable ones. Behavior modification is accomplished through the instruction of proper actions and social skills. These initiatives are policy-based measures that expand the school’s role in delivering social skills and behavior support. Online education has grown significantly in recent years, exponentially expanding the scope of pursuing higher education. Current researchers have shown that every element of society experiences a dynamic aspect with discrete technological advancements. The technological aspect has led to a dynamic alteration in the academic field. The most prominent contribution of technological advancement has been an important issue of concern in future studies. Technology has been the most significant breakthrough (Cook et al., 2018; Doabler et al., 2019). The most remarkable breakthrough of technology in academics was the online academic programs being used more profoundly in advanced studies (Anderson, 2008; Picciano, 2017).
The teaching and learning phenomenon is a concept gaining traction as an essential aspect of education. In both online and offline modes of education, the critical aspect of education is the smooth teaching-learning procedure. Since the teacher is responsible for transferring knowledge in the classroom and during the teaching-learning process, the teacher is referred to as the knowledge carrier. It is their obligation and responsibility to possess the knowledge required to instruct the students (Enright et al., 2021; Kim et al., 2021; Sayed, Munna & Kalam, 2021). The social aspect of learning is not absent from online courses; it only changes. The behavioral change portion of the teaching-learning process is an influential phenomenon that contemplates integrating a range of variables together by which the learners work to achieve an objective and acquire new knowledge and skills (Eun, 2018; Picciano, 2017). Learning theory is an essential component of the teaching-learning process that focuses on the outcomes of the above-mentioned processes. Researchers and educationists have vehemently defined different learning theory perspectives (Michie et al., 2017; Thomas et al., 2020) which concluded that both the traditional and online modes of education rely on a profound basis of an effective teaching-learning system.
However, because of the distinctiveness of the modes, the impact of the teaching-learning aspect is different for different modes the teaching and learning theory guides behaviorism, constructivism, and cognitive aspects (Anderson, 2008; Bandura, 1986; Picciano, 2017). Cognitive learning theory deliberately focuses on the innate ability of a learner to acquire knowledge by observation, experience, and understanding. The process involves acquiring knowledge and skills through cognitive or mental processes (Eun, 2018).
Another typical learning theory that contributes to a proper learning process is the behavioral learning theory. It focuses on the idea that behavior determines the interaction with the environment of education (Anderson, 2008; Bandura, 1986; Hew & Lo, 2018). The theory promotes the context that justifies the fact that an individual’s behavior is influenced by the learning environment and suggests that behavior gains innate or inherited factors (Michie et al., 2017).
However, some researchers believe that education and educators’ impact on students and effectively influence their behavior in the classroom (Grichland, 2017). In this context, online education has little effect on the theory of behavioral learning (Anderson, 2008; Bandura, 1977; Kim et al., 2021). Since a virtual platform cannot influence a person’s behavior in general, virtual education is a significant concern for education because online education does not surpass traditional education. The theory can also be associated with social learning theory (Kim et al., 2021). The theory of social learning (Bandura, 1977; Eun, 2018; Michie et al., 2017) suggests that social behavior develops in an individual by observing and imitating other people’s behavior in society. From the educational viewpoint, it profoundly nurtures the personality of a learner.
Related Literature
Education theories propose various educational models designed to keep a solid teaching-learning process. The literature on the most appropriate style of professional development in education analyzes the critical aspects of technology in the current setting, and it is a valuable resource. Learning theories, behavioral change theory, and social learning theory are discussed in the first section, followed by an overview of recent literature on professional development and educational challenges. The literature analyzed the significance of continuing education for workers in PBIS, RTI, and MTSS and how this factor contributes to pursuing long-term goals and objectives in various fields of study. Next, the literature on the factors that lead to the development of continued support for successful outcomes will be discussed. In conclusion, a gap will be found in the existing research to prove why the current investigation is warranted.
Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports (PBIS)
Positive Behavior Intervention Support (PBIS) has been acknowledged for over three decades as an effective, evidence-based method to lower problematic behaviors and improve individuals’ quality of life (Lucyshyn et al., 2015). The Pyramid Model is a program-wide PBIS framework for organizing evidence-informed early childhood practices. It establishes three stages or tiers of support for children’s social and emotional competency. The first tier comprises universal techniques that encourage responsive caregiver relationships and high-quality supporting environments for all children. Targeted services for specific groups of children requiring more systematic and focused social-emotional teaching are the second tier. The third tier contains techniques that provide tailored positive behavior support to children with chronic problematic behaviors that do not respond to interventions in the previous tiers. The objective of PBIS is to assist schools in implementing proactive staff behavior, as opposed to reactive conduct, such as detentions and suspensions. Any persistent pattern of behavior or perception that interferes with or threatens to interfere with optimal learning or engagement in pro-social interactions with peers and adults is classified as challenging behavior (Ai, 2022).
Response To Intervention (RTI)    Comment by Deck, Janet Sue (Doctor of Education): I think you should explain what RTI is here also.    Comment by Robert Pettit: Fixed
    RTI is understood by the majority of educators on at least a superficial level. Since the 2004 reauthorization of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act (IDEIA), which prohibits states from requiring school districts to use IQ-achievement discrepancy criteria in the identification of students with specific learning disabilities (2008) and encourages the use of a scientific, research-based approach known as response-to-intervention, school districts are encouraged to use this method (Wills et al., 2016).
Multi-Tiered Support Systems (MTSS)
MTSS is used to explain PBIS and RTI techniques in this paper. McIntosh & Goodman (2016) explain that whether MTSS is used only for behavior or academics, or both are incorporated into a single system, the guiding concepts are the same in RTI. They emphasize that RTI focuses primarily on delivering intervention to students in need of assistance, whereas MTSS emphasizes high-quality individualized core education and focuses on both intervention and prevention. Various misconceptions exist about MTSS, including its application to students with disabilities. MTSS does not exclude students with Individualized Education Programs (IEPs). The tiered framework meets all student needs in all areas (academic, social, emotional, and behavioral). The modifications, support, and services on a student’s IEP should supplement, rather than replace, the tiered support available to all students under an MTSS framework. Each student can access support as soon as needed, which is a hallmark of effective implementation. Tier 1 supports should be available to all students, including students with disabilities, and Tier 3 supports should be available to all students, regardless of eligibility under the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) or Section 504.
Figure 3 represents the State of Washington’s MTSS framework and contributes to ensuring that students benefit from nurturing environments and equitable access to universal instruction and supports that are culturally and linguistically responsive, universally designed, and differentiated to meet their specific needs.
Figure 3
Washington State MTSS Framework
Note. From “Washington State MTSS framework,” by Flores et al.(2020). OPSI https://www.k12.wa.us    Comment by Deck, Janet Sue (Doctor of Education): Do you have copyright permission? Was this figure copy/pasted?    Comment by Robert Pettit: Same open source stilled emailed to get permission
The essential components of MTSS are interrelated, and as the intensity of student need increases, each component also increases in intensity. The essential components are broken down into the following five components for the Washington State MTSS framework (Flores et al., 2020).
Team-Driven Shared Leadership. In order for MTSS to be implemented, the organization must be able to lead and support the essential aspects of MTSS. The school's leadership teams are responsible for planning, coordinating, monitoring, and adjusting MTSS implementation activities to aid all staff members. Leadership teams are responsible for developing the team’s ability to lead the work and providing the training and support that staff, families, and community partners require completing the work as planned. Leadership teams should have a broad range of people and a reliable way to get input and information from faculty, students, families, and community associates (Flores et al., 2020).
Data-Based Decision-Making. Assessment data, inspection reports or examination results are used to inform decision-making at all system levels (district, school, grade). To enhance their decision-making and improve support, district and school teams adhere to a standardized process aimed at ensuring the reliability and the validity of the data (Flores et al., 2020).    Comment by Deck, Janet Sue (Doctor of Education): What data?    Comment by Robert Pettit: Listed types    Comment by Deck, Janet Sue (Doctor of Education): What do you mean by "agreed-upon process"?    Comment by Robert Pettit: fixed    Comment by Deck, Janet Sue (Doctor of Education): It looks the same to me.    Comment by Deck, Janet Sue (Doctor of Education): Also, this paragraph needs a citation.    Comment by Robert Pettit: Cited
Family, Student, and Community Engagement. Family engagement occurs at the district, school, and classroom levels. Garbacz et al., (2019). MTSS should also emphasize student voice in educational decisions, as well as opportunities for instructional choice and designing supports that are tailored to their specific strengths and needs. Building comprehensive systems requires involving community partners in multi-tiered supports. The framework and methods for implementing supports in collaboration with community stakeholders, families, and students are provided by MTSS.
Continuum Of Supports- On a continuum, instruction, enrichment, and intervention are provided to fulfill the social, emotional, behavioral, and academic needs of all students. The purpose of enrichment and intervention is to accelerate learning and eliminate obstacles that prevent kids from receiving the full benefits of universal education and supports. Providing students with integrated, need-based, and universal instruction-aligned assistance will promote independence and development in universal education (Garbacz et al., 2019).     Comment by Deck, Janet Sue (Doctor of Education): Add a citation.    Comment by Robert Pettit: cited
Evidence must Support Evidence-Based Practices. In order to improve the effectiveness of instruction, there are four levels of evidence that can be utilized: strong, moderate, promising, and rationale-based. Strong evidence (Tier 1) represents the highest level and is supported by one or more well-designed and well-implemented randomized control experimental studies. Moderate Evidence (tier 2) is the second and is supported by one or more well-designed and well-implemented quasi-experimental studies. The Third (Tier 3) is encouraging and one or more well-designed and well-implemented correlational studies supported it (with statistical controls for selection bias). Lastly, the rational-based (Tier 4) are practices that have a well-defined logic model or theory of action, are supported by research, and have some effort underway by an SEA, LEA, or outside research organization to determine their effectiveness. Implementing MTSS guarantees the fair adoption of evidence-based strategies for the benefit of all students. Tiers reflect the level of assistance provided but do not define students (Sandavol, 2022). Interventions implemented under Title I, strong, moderate, or promising evidence (Tiers 1-3) must support Section 1003 (School Improvement. Tiers 1-4 can be used for all other programs under Titles I-IV).    Comment by Deck, Janet Sue (Doctor of Education): Add a citation.    Comment by Robert Pettit: added
The Tiered System of MTSS Framework
Whether the MTSS framework is used only for behavior or academics, both are incorporated into a single system, and the guiding concepts are the same (McIntosh & Goodman, 2016). MTSS framework is a methodology that entails adopting three levels of instruction or support, with each tier focusing on distinct learning needs and rising in intensity. For the successful implementation of MTSS, collaboration must occur between the general and special educators. The MTSS model should frequently progress and monitor a targeted skill versus the baseline, examine how students’ skills relate to curriculum materials and make instructional changes based on data.
Tier 1 Primary Prevention. RTI incorporates various instruction levels intended to prevent the implementation of poor instruction over extended periods and prevent deficiencies from developing or becoming more severe (Wyse et al., 2020). Tier 1 is general education curriculum designed to accommodate varied student learning needs. Since MTSS data might possibly identify pupils with a learning disadvantage, Tier 1 must involve the deployment of research-based instructional strategies. Schools may be required to provide teachers with professional development on the effective use of materials and practice, and they must be able to defend the core instructional programs as generally effective in promoting student achievement or have research-based justification for improved achievement. Teachers may require continuing support, professional development, or coaching to ensure instructional techniques are implemented with fidelity.
Screening measures can identify students at the beginning of the school year who have a chance of achieving crucial educational objectives. Screening procedures can identify pupils at risk who require preventative teaching. Schools may also use benchmarking assessment systems in which all students are reviewed annually. By analyzing their test scores, teachers can identify individuals at risk of failing (Wyse et al., 2020).    Comment by Deck, Janet Sue (Doctor of Education): Add a citation.    Comment by Robert Pettit: cited
Tier 2 Secondary Prevention. Students who do not progress in Tier 1 will receive more support in supplemental Tier 2 (Wyse et al., 2020). Tier 2 services are often pullout instructional services frequently offered to small groups of students (Stecker et al., 2008). Targeting students in Tier 2 and designing systemic treatments for students in small groups with progress monitoring is the purpose of the second tier (Vaughn & Roberts, 2007). Besides Tier 1 core education, students in Tier 2 may receive interventions for 20 minutes per day for a maximum of 20 weeks (Bradley et al., 2007). The MTSS framework can use traditional treatment protocols and individualized problem-solving strategies to enhance education. Similar to Tier 1, supplementary education should be based on scientific proof of its effectiveness. Schools must guarantee that the supplementary programs are also given as expected in their true form. According to Richards et al. (2007), some individuals receiving Tier 2 instruction/intervention may not make any progress in fulfilling grade-level benchmarks; hence, students who do not react to Tier 2 interventions will receive Tier 3 instruction. The same measures used for assessing progress at Tier 1 can be applied to monitoring at Tier 2. Depending on the amount of instructional time already spent in Tier 2, students may receive an additional round of Tier 2 intervention or move to Tier 3 if their development in Tier 2 is poor or slow.
Tier 3 Tertiary Intervention. Students in Tier 3 are usually 2-5% of all students and receive instruction/intervention in smaller groups than Tier 2. Instruction/intervention in Tier 3 is more intense and explicit and may take 45-60 minutes (Vaughn et al., 2007). As with Tier 2 instruction/intervention, students receiving Tier 3 instruction should also receive Tier 1 core instruction (Allsopp et al., 2010). Once multiple rounds of preventive aid have been provided, including more targeted assistance within Tier 2, and the student still performs poorly academically based on the slope of improvement and level of performance, special education is considered. The district assesses whether or not Tier 3 instruction/intervention makes up special education services. Berkeley et al. (2009) stated that special education referrals should only be following the delivery of tiered instruction/intervention within MTSS.    Comment by Deck, Janet Sue (Doctor of Education): Fix APA format for this citation    Comment by Robert Pettit: fixed
The importance of Tier 3 is the monitoring of student progress (Stecker et al., 2008). Teachers utilize curriculum-based measurement (CBM) data to assist and define long-term goals and to track students’ development throughout the year. Educational leaders may be better able to determine when instruction is generally effective if they employ progress monitoring measures with all students. Another advantage of using progress monitoring data with all students is determining if students who may have surpassed benchmarks continue to grow academically. MTSS can provide teachers with an instructional and intervention framework based on student data. In an RTI model, students are screened three times per year. Student performance is compared to grade-level benchmark norms.     Comment by Deck, Janet Sue (Doctor of Education): Fix format    Comment by Robert Pettit: fixed
Positive behavioral intervention and supports intent. The MTSS and PBIS frameworks, based on public health and prevention science, provide a structure for the adoption and implementation of universal prevention practices (Tier 1) for all children, targeted interventions (Tier 2) for children at risk indicating early signs of problems, and intensive interventions (Tier 3) for children and youth with more serious problems (Sugai & Horner, 2006). A primary goal of PBIS is the reduction of problem behaviors that frequently result in office discipline referrals (ODRs), suspensions, and a decline in academic engagement. Several studies have examined the impact of Tier I feature on student behavioral outcomes, such as ODRs and suspension rates (Southern, 2021; Gage et al., 2020; Freeman et al., 2019).    Comment by Deck, Janet Sue (Doctor of Education): Make sure you have "several" citations to support your sentence.    Comment by Robert Pettit: added
Sugai and Horner (2020) discovered that roughly 25% more schools evaluate Tier 1 implementation fidelity than Tiers 2 or 3 in a recent summary of the past 20 years of federally subsidized PBIS implementation and sustainability. Although 65% of schools considering Tier 1 implementation meet stated cutoffs, only 33% and 18% meet Tier 2 and Tier 3 implementation standards, respectively. Besides the growing use of PBIS, there has been a growing national push to expand school-based mental health promotion, prevention, and intervention practices with collaboration from community-based mental health providers in schools, supplementing the work of school-employed mental health staff, school psychologists, school social workers, and school counselors.
Assessments and progress monitoring. Assessment data should play an integral role in Tier preventative practices. Assessments are an integral element of the learning process since they define a student’s current level of comprehension and give teachers helpful information on what is and is not working (Fisher & Frey, 2010). The beginning of the year can target screening measures, and students may achieve significant educational outcomes if identified early. RTI/MTSS is primarily a model for resource allocation. Data from assessments are used to match student needs with interventions. As a result, sound assessment practices and data-driven decision-making are cornerstones of RTI, and improved student outcomes are the most substantial evidence for the validity of any assessment-data decision.
Financial Aspects. The passage of new pre-school programs by a Republican-controlled Congress as recently as 2015 implies that such projects may become politically viable again in the near future. In special education, monetary issues are always a worry. Zerkil (2019) noted that implementing RTI for disability identification would need substantially more time and money than the current testing-based paradigm. There are differing opinions regarding the financial impact of RTI. Fuchs and Fuchs (2019) predicted that a two-step screening and progress-tracking method would save school districts’ money by targeting Tier 2 education to students who genuinely require it. Gerber (2005) addressed several concerns regarding the expense of RTI. The Federal Funding to Support Response to Intervention | RTI Action Network, (n.d.)
Bradshaw (2020) used shadow cost to estimate the approximate cost of liability to a school. The most significant cost savings were related with higher standardized test scores ($139K for elementary and $72K for secondary). Reducing violent and disruptive behavior in primary pupils, as well as bullying behavior, resulted in significant cost savings ($166,000 in total). Savings associated with fewer suspensions ($33,500 for elementary and $11,400 for secondary) augment these cost-cutting gains. Other findings include student truancy, office discipline referrals, and mental health concerns (Bradshaw et al., 2020). The data, when taken together, demonstrate the significant cost savings associated with previous PBIS Tier 1 implementation and scale-up to the current MTSS framework. Finally, it analyzes how the statewide implementation of MTSSS can cause cost reductions across several agencies.
Because educators’ primary focus has been on implementing the old universal PBIS framework, it is possible that implementing targeted treatments within the wider multitiered systems of support model will generate additional mental health benefits (Bradshaw et al., 2020). Individually and collectively, these systems must include time and resources for educators to engage in self-reflection and high-quality in-service professional development. Future research should combine these two sets of cost data by conducting a more formal, pre-planned benefit-cost analysis for MTSS and a more specific focus on the cost savings associated with the deployment of additional evidence-based programs at the advanced tiers. The means of overcoming this challenge is through petitioning the government and other philanthropic organizations to provide adequate funds for obtaining sufficient resources to execute and maintain the RTI/MTSS framework.    Comment by Deck, Janet Sue (Doctor of Education): This paragraph is still only 2 sentences.    Comment by Robert Pettit: added
Educator’s Professional Development (PD)
Any educator’s career would be incomplete without ongoing education and training. Fortunately, there are numerous options for education and training. Professional development (PD) helps teachers reflect on their teaching practices, learn new skills, develop new classroom strategies, and keep up with the educational trends. Recent developments in online education have redesigned the system of the teaching-learning process itself. PD, such as attending conferences and workshops, is an excellent way for educators to further their education (Childress et al., 2021). When taking a closer look at the idea of teacher PD, why it is so critical, and some of the best places to do so? Most occupations require some form of ongoing PD to stay on top of one’s skills and knowledge (Deng, 2022). There is no escaping PD regarding education and future advancement in the career field (Walberg, 2018). After obtaining a teaching credential and beginning work in a school, education terminates. The renewal of a teacher’s license in most states requires PD for teachers in the K-12 education sector.
Asynchronous and synchronous modalities of instruction existed in numerous institutions prior to the pandemic’s occurrence (Picciano, 2017). Most significantly, online modes of instruction have emerged as a significant context in higher education that has grown rapidly in recent years. Because of the pandemic crisis in 2020-2021 and its consequences, the framework for online education has become more mature, and significant strides have been made toward an effective teaching-learning process through online education. On the surface, it is clear that online education has evolved considerably into a pedagogical shift away from the conventional technique, a modern approach to teaching-learning that has moved away from the physical classroom to the virtual classroom and away from seminars and webinars (Koonce et al., 2019). Teachers benefit from PD that encourages them to think outside the box for school improvement. Formative assessment, data-driven decision making, policy implications, leadership, community, educational technology, and teaching methodology all fall under the umbrella of PD.
Teachers’ professional learning is essential for helping students develop the increasingly sophisticated skills they will need to succeed in the twenty-first century. Successful students must develop critical thinking, complex problem-solving, effective communication and collaboration, and self-direction. Teachers need effective PD to help them learn and refine the instructional strategies required to teach these skills. Teachers who receive quality PD have more time to learn, practice, implement new ideas, and reflect on their progress (Ha et al., 2021). As a result, effective PD programs typically engage teachers in learning over several weeks, months, or even academic years rather than short, one-off workshops.
Social Theory
The quality of teacher education programs can only be improved if teacher educators assist student teachers in identifying the gap between teaching and theory and continuously assist them in connecting their learned theory and practice. Social and emotional skills are often discussed in the context of teacher education. This is because higher education is a very stressful time (Acharya et al., 2018; Bai et al., 2020). It is not enough for a teacher to have a variety of engaging activities at their disposal; they must also be familiar with and able to implement a variety of instructional strategies, and they must do these strategies while keeping in mind that the strategies are not an end in and of themselves in this context. Koonce et al. (2019) reveals that the quality of teacher education programs can only be improved if teacher educators assist student teachers in identifying the gap between teaching and theory and continuously facilitate them in connecting their learned theory and practice. On the contrary, Burner and Svendsen (2020) believe that, in the absence of sufficient theoretical knowledge, it is a challenge for educators and researchers to change the training of teachers who teach in a traditional style for their educational practices to change. During the COVID-19 outbreak that has been going on for the past few years, we have accumulated sufficient evidence to cast doubt on both ideas. Despite this, we wanted to give some credence to the skepticism by investigating the matter.
Professional Development into Practice
When it comes to putting PD into action, it must meet the specific needs of teachers and students and the educational setting as a whole. It is essential to plan for these common obstacles to PD during the program’s design and implementation phases. Previously, online education was synonymous with distance education or e-learning courses, but this has changed. Although the COVID-19 era significantly increased the number of students enrolled in online courses, it also steered the entire education system toward a technology-based teaching-learning process (Nagro et al., 2018; Purba et al., 2019). End-to-end teaching and learning systems that support students in acquiring the knowledge, skills, and competencies they need to succeed in the 21st century should include well-designed PD.
Professional learning should be linked to teachers’ preparation, induction, teaching standards, and evaluation to ensure a cohesive system that supports teachers throughout the professional continuum. To ensure a comprehensive system that focuses on the growth and development of teachers, it should also include leadership opportunities. In classroom management, the term “positive behavioral support” refers to tactics that assist teachers in identifying and addressing the underlying causes of disruptive conduct and strategies that transform the learning environment to foster the behavior they want to see in their students.
Challenges
    As teachers transition from the PD context to their schools with evolving affinity identities, they may acquire new concepts that alter classroom cultures, norms, and instruction. Quality of implementation has an impact on the overall effectiveness of PD initiatives. Researchers have found that teachers sometimes cannot implement PD practices because they neglect the practice or do not consider it important enough, and they encounter obstacles they are powerless to overcome. The most well-intentioned initiatives can hamper learning even to enhance teacher effectiveness and elevate student skill sets. As a result, it is critical to recognize the role of theory in educational research and practice, particularly in teacher education (Olivier et al., 2019). Accountability difficulties also compelled states and school districts to examine professional development concerns at all levels more thoroughly, particularly for first-year teachers, to support their learning efforts and assist their growth as teachers. Classroom teachers and teacher educators need to be aware of and informed about the numerous theoretical frameworks that influence and shape classroom instruction and the educational theory and research that guides and develops teacher education (Bovill & Woolmer, 2018). Great teacher PD communities must foster teachers’ self-reflection and inquiry, much as an effective teacher uses unexpected situations to excite a students’ curiosity. Various facets of growth have been examined within studies on the new teacher. These studies investigate cognitive and ego-level maturity and the new teacher’s developmental periods or stages and are essential in the continuing improvement of PD and skill progression.
The Role of Professional Development for Success
In general and special educational settings, RTI is an evidence-based early intervention method for students with difficulty with their learning or conduct. Its fundamental tenets include: the provision of evidence-based instruction at Tier 1 with fidelity, the frequent monitoring of student development, the evaluation of student responsiveness to intervention, and the modification of instructional strategies as required (Fuchs & Fuchs, 2019; National Association of State Directors of Special Education, 2005). There has been a notable shift in education reform efforts with a distinct approach - one that originated from the grassroots level. It is not enough for teachers to use progress monitoring systems and scientifically based instructional practices when implementing RTI (Bohanon & Wu, 2020). A comprehensive, school-wide system reform is produced by the employment of data and instructional practices to advance the development and sustainability of RTI implementation (Young, 2018).
RTI is designed to address several concerns related to traditional special education identification procedures, the disproportionate representation of minorities in special education, the integration of general and special education, and the delivery of evidence-based programs to students. Now, both state initiatives and federal legislation have approved the efficacy of RTI and other programs that are pretty comparable to RTI. Several opportunities exist for professional education to start the teaching-learning process and open up numerous possibilities for synchronizing educational systems, especially regarding the RTI/MTSS framework. The first and most important feature is that the online education system has broken down geographical barriers and made it easier for anyone to receive education from anywhere (Tamim, 2020). It has substantially strengthened the learner’s sense of belonging while also assisting them in mobilizing and strengthening their learning philosophy (Bohanon & Wu, 2020). The instructor’s ability to impart his or her expertise and understanding to the students effectively plays a significant role in the growth of teaching and learning processes (Lumpkin, 2020).
The most significant aspect of online education is that it has simultaneously failed both time and geographical barriers. Part of the social aspect is removing the need for students to travel long distances and reducing the time and travel expenses incurred by professors, which can deter students from attending classes (Song et al., 2020). It is also important to note that online education offers considerable advantages in terms of convenience, as students can access the learning module whenever convenient. Students take part in virtual classroom conversations within their course’s online learning platform, rather than in a physical classroom on campus, to help them learn more about their course material (Willermark & Gellerstedt, 2022). These discussions may even be more satisfying for them than the typical course discussions. Students in virtual classroom discussions must each contribute something significant to the conversation which may not always be the case in traditional classroom discussions where participation grades may be based on whether the student spoke up rather than what he or she contributed to the conversation (Hollingsworth & Clarke, 2017).
As the RTI model is implemented in different states, experts generally urge a gradual introduction over several years so that educators and administrators have time to adapt to the new procedures (March et al., 2020). Core implementation components of RTI defined by the National Research Center on Learning Disabilities (NCLD) include: a) use of high-quality research-based classroom instruction in conjunction with appropriate interventions; b) universal screening for academics and behavior; and c) tracking kids’ response to interventions regularly. When it comes to implementing RTI or other tiered interventions, NCLB strongly emphasizes evidence-based practice, data-driven decision making, and multitiered intervention. Specifically, IDEA (2004) expands on NCLB’s emphasis on preventing learning issues, minimizing achievement inequalities among minority children, and intervening early with pupils struggling to learn. The utilization of online learning modes encourages students to make better use of technology and improve their digital abilities, becoming increasingly vital in the digital age. IDEA (2004) emphasizes instructional practices and decision-making to prevent minority special education students from being misclassified because of insufficient instruction or cultural bias. IDEA (2004) advocates improvements that integrate special and mainstream education systems at their core.
Children at risk of learning difficulties and those with identified learning disabilities will benefit from the law’s emphasis on improving their outcomes. According to researchers and studies, the synchronization of online and traditional education will be an essential aspect of the digital age (Braun et al., 2020). An effective online education system can reduce physical infrastructure costs while using shared digital resources (Hollingsworth & Clarke, 2017). The frequency with which the behavior is expected to occur. Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ) has proven to be popular among SDQ-using educators. A SDQ instrument has been translated into seventy languages, and is sensitive to detecting intervention effects, and it has widespread national and international application. Assessment programs like Dynamic Indicators of Basic Early Literacy Skills (DIBELS) for reading and math (K-2) (Good et al., 2003), Standardized Testing And Reporting of reading and math (STAR) (3rd-5th) (Renaissance Learning, 2010), and Core Phonics Surveys (Park et al., 2014) are tools being used to determine accurate assessments. Determining such as the use of RTI’s teacher support teams, problem-solving procedures, and databases in making decisions has been on the agenda of policymakers for quite some time.    Comment by Deck, Janet Sue (Doctor of Education) [2]: Spell out first    Comment by Pettit, Robert Lawrence: Spelled out
Professional Development
For practically every element of society, technology is one of the essential factors in structural change. Technology is proper for any intervention framework. The RTI/MTSS framework has evolved into one of the essential components of any grade level, resulting in a considerable increase in output (Barari et al., 2020). Incorporating professional learning into Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA) school improvement initiatives, such as new learning standards implementation, the use of student data for informing instruction, improving student literacy, increasing student access to advanced coursework, and creating a positive and inclusive learning environment, can all enhance them. Numerous attempts have been made to find a method, structure, or ideology that can make the promise of appropriate education for all without special education a reality, allowing schools to be inclusive of all students without identifying or “separating out” any for education apart from the general education population. Administrators could identify and develop expert teachers as mentors and coaches at the state and district level to help other educators learn in their particular areas of expertise (Ali et al., 2021).
Technological features in the teaching-learning process fill the classroom with digital technologies that expand the course options, experiences, and educational materials available to students (Ali et al., 2021; Mosher, 2023). Technology has broken down geographical barriers to learning and provides support for learning 24 hours a day, seven days a week. According to the study’s authors, it has also significantly enhanced student involvement and motivation in the learning process (Florida Problem Solving & Response to Intervention Project - Home, n.d.).    Comment by Deck, Janet Sue (Doctor of Education) [2]: What authors?    Comment by Deck, Janet Sue (Doctor of Education): Don't forget to cite the authors to support your sentence.    Comment by Pettit, Robert Lawrence: cited
Technological advancements have boosted educational productivity and sped up the learning rate by lowering the costs involved with acquiring instructional materials and program delivery. Technology has also revolutionized the teaching-learning process by introducing new models of connected teaching. Teachers and students are linked together via digital resources and professional content in this new teaching approach which helps teachers enhance their education and tailor learning (Vo et al., 2017).
Professional Development Across Disciplines
Employers place a high value on personal and professional skills, which are also seen as essential for lifelong learning and general success, making them beneficial for both responsible citizenship and job success. Employers report a “skills gap” or difficulty finding job candidates with soft skills, such as communication, customer service, problem-solving, flexibility, and critical thinking. As tuition costs continue to rise and stakeholder demands for accountability increase, universities have placed more emphasis on metrics related to employment after graduation. The significance of personal and professional abilities extends beyond the workplace. Besides cognitive techniques, counseling graduate programs frequently use experiential learning theory by combining cognitive learning growth with interactive field experiences as a crucial element of learning (Aubrey & Riley, 2016). Academic success has been linked to the soft abilities associated with emotional intelligence. In Maslow’s (1954) hierarchy of needs, the concept of belonging is introduced first. Maslow (1954) believed belonging is a motivating factor for an individual’s behaviors and actions. Belonging and love need to follow physical and safety needs for individual needs as psychological needs for interpersonal relationships (Briesch et al., 2020; Cook et al., 2018; Maslow, 1954). Transferring the concept of belonging to higher education institutions has been identified as an indicator that promotes success, engagement, and student success in the RTI/MTSS framework.
Educational institutions are integrating general and special education and providing students with evidence-based programs. RTI emphasizes integrating program areas, applying a problem-solving strategy, and using evidence-based instruction with progress monitoring data because these strategies have consistent (Johnson & Stage, 2018). RTI is designed with programmatic collaboration in mind, as it requires coordinated decision-making and resource sharing among personnel in general education, special education, and related services.    Comment by Paige Rapson: Do you have research to back up these ideas and claims?    Comment by Pettit, Robert Lawrence: Referenced
An example of an evaluation and assessment program is Kahoot! Assessment and evaluation in the programs play an essential role in gamification. These simple assessment programs contribute to students’ success at various levels (Purba et al., 2019). Kahoot! Appears to focus on themes that apply to learning appears to have a tremendous impact on the dynamics of...