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From cross-cultural management to global leadership: Evolution and adaptation Seediscussions,stats,andauthorprofilesforthispublicationat:https://www.researchgate.net/publication/284077221 Fromcross-culturalmanagementtoglobal leadership:Evolutionandadaptation ArticleinJournalofWorldBusiness·October2015 DOI:10.1016/j.jwb.2015.10.005 CITATIONS 26 READS 1,916 2authors: Someoftheauthorsofthispublicationarealsoworkingontheserelatedprojects: GlobalLeadershipDevelopmentViewproject 3rdeditionofthebook,"GlobalLeadership:Research,Practice,andDevelopment."Viewproject AllanBird NortheasternUniversity 63PUBLICATIONS1,797CITATIONS SEEPROFILE MarkE.Mendenhall UniversityofTennesseeatChattanooga 99PUBLICATIONS6,059CITATIONS SEEPROFILE AllcontentfollowingthispagewasuploadedbyAllanBirdon18April2016. 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Mendenhall b a D’Amore-McKim School of Business, Northeastern University, 313a Hayden Hall, 360 Huntington Avenue, Boston, MA 02115, United States b College of Business, University of Tennessee, Chattanooga, 406 FA Fletcher Building, 615 McCallie Avenue, Chattanooga, TN 37403, United States A R T I C L E I N F O Keywords: Global leadership Cross-cultural management Comparative management A B S T R A C T We provide a quasi-historical review of how the field of global leadership evolved. In doing so, we conceptually map an overall trajectory of the field of global leadership, discussing the nature of its origins in the field of cross-cultural management. We trace evolutionary trends in the field of cross-cultural management from 1960 to the present, and explore how these trends influenced the formation of the global leadership literature. After reviewing the primary domains of the global leadership field, we conclude with a discussion of the implications of our analysis for future research and managerial practice. � 2015 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. Contents lists available at ScienceDirect Journal of World Business jo u r nal h o mep age: w ww.els evier . co m/lo c ate / jwb 1. Introduction The past fifty years of international business research has seen an extraordinary evolution in our awareness and understanding of cross-cultural management. As consciousness of the challenges and rewards of managing across national and cultural boundaries has grown, the nature of the global business context has also evolved. In this article we provide a quasi-historical review of the field of global leadership, tracing its initial roots in the fields of international, comparative, and cross-cultural management. In doing so, we conceptually map an overall trajectory of the field of global leadership as well as delineate its current terrain. Our intent is not to provide a comprehensive treatment of the global leadership field nor of the international, comparative, and cross-cultural manage- ment literatures, which would be beyond the scope of this paper and would require book-length treatments. Rather the emphasis will be on how a changing context and evolving phenomena brought us to where we are in the study of global leadership. Before going further, we offer an additional clarification. From inception there has been ambiguity and dissent over the terminolo- gy that management scholars use when discussing management outside a purely domestic context. In general, ‘‘international management’’ is used as the broadest classification, incorporating international strategy, international human resources, and all other aspects of managing internationally and at all levels of analysis. * Corresponding author. E-mail addresses:
[email protected] (A. Bird),
[email protected] (M.E. Mendenhall). Please cite this article in press as: Bird, A., & Mendenhall, M. E. From adaptation. Journal of World Business (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.10 http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jwb.2015.10.005 1090-9516/� 2015 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. ‘‘Cross-cultural management’’ has generally referred to accommo- dating differences in cultural practices when managing outside of one’s home country and it often takes a comparative perspective. In this article, we use both of these terms, although when using ‘‘international management’’ we are most often referring to the broader field while when using ‘‘Cross-cultural management’’ we are mostly referencing a more specific subset of that field. We next offer an overview of precursors to the advent of global leadership divided into four eras or ‘‘stages’’ and review how the cross-cultural management literature generally approached the study of leadership in each stage, and discuss how various research streams from these stages combined to give birth to the field of global leadership. We then provide an overview of the global leadership literature, and finally conclude our analysis with a discussion of its implications for future research and practice. 2. A brief history of global leadership We begin with a brief history of cross-cultural management research viewed from the vantage point of a focus on global leadership. Given the brevity of this historical overview, it necessarily paints a picture that can be misleading in its presentation of an orderly path of development. The reality is significantly messier in terms of digressive exploratory tangents, detours into theoretical dead-ends and intractable disagreements over conceptual terms and organizing frameworks. Nevertheless, we contend that there is a discernible, though meandering, path of development that results in a coherent field of scholarly inquiry into a phenomenon called global leadership that has generated the cross-cultural management to global leadership: Evolution and 16/j.jwb.2015.10.005 http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jwb.2015.10.005 mailto:
[email protected] mailto:
[email protected] http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jwb.2015.10.005 http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/journal/10909516 www.elsevier.com/locate/jwb http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jwb.2015.10.005 A. Bird, M.E. Mendenhall / Journal of World Business xxx (2015) xxx–xxx2 G Model WORBUS-770; No. of Pages 12 attention of numerous scholars. This is evidenced by recent special journal issues devoted to the construct by Journal of World Business (Steers, Sanchez-Runde, & Nardon, 2012), Organizational Dynamics (Executive Summaries, 2013), and European Journal of International Management (Maznevski, Stahl, & Mendenhall, 2013) as well as the fifteen year existence of an annual edited book series that has now shifted to journal status: Advances in Global Leadership. 2.1. Positioning cross-cultural management research as a field of inquiry After World War II, management and organizational behavior blossomed as fields of research in academe. Many younger scholars assume that cross-cultural management followed only after these fields were well established, but that is not the case. The field of cross-cultural management arose simultaneously to the general fields of management and organizational behavior. As Table 1 indicates, journals with a distinct focus on the study of management and organizational behavior in international con- texts were established simultaneously to mainstream manage- ment journals and have continued that trend to the present. Scholarly journals in psychology trace back to the early 1900s, but journals focused specifically on organizational psychology and the management of organizations did not appear until the 1950s. It is noteworthy that the Journal of International Business Studies and Thunderbird International Business Review published their first volumes just three years after the appearance of Administrative Science Quarterly and the Academy of Management Journal. Also noteworthy is that the Journal of World Business began publication ten years ahead of the Academy of Management Review and fourteen years ahead of the Journal of Organizational Behavior. As long as there has been scholarly interest in management, there has been concomitant interest in cross-cultural management. Table 1 Table 1 Founding dates of selected management and international management journals. Management journal Founding date Psychological Bulletin 1904 Journal of Applied Psychology 1917 Human Relations 1947 Personnel Psychology 1948 Administrative Science Quarterly 1956 Academy of Management Journal 1958 Journal of International Business Studiesa 1959 Thunderbird International Business Review 1959 Management International Review 1960 Journal of Management Studies 1963 (Columbia) Journal of World Business 1965 Asia Pacific Journal of Human Resources 1966 Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology 1970 International Studies of Management & Organization 1971 Organizational Dynamics 1972 International Journal of Intercultural Relations 1972 Journal of Management 1975 Academy of Management Review 1976 Journal of Organizational Behavior 1979 Strategic Management Journal 1980 Asia Pacific Journal of Management 1983 International Journal of Human Resource Management 1990 Leadership Quarterly 1990 Human Resource Management Journal 1990 Organization Science 1990 British Journal of Management 1990 International Business Review 1992 Cross Cultural Management: An International Journal 1994 Journal of International Management 1995 Advances in Global Leadership 1999 International Journal of Cross Cultural Management 2001 European Journal of International Management 2006 Journal of Global Mobility 2013 a Italics denote international management journals. Please cite this article in press as: Bird, A., & Mendenhall, M. E. From adaptation. Journal of World Business (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.10 also illustrates the rise of cross-cultural management research through the proliferation of journals focused on this field over time. Early work in cross-cultural management often consisted of identifying a phenomenon or theory of interest and asking, ‘‘Is this phenomenon the same in another country?’’ or ‘‘Does this theory apply in another culture?’’ Typical of these types of studies were Herzberg’s studies of motivation in Finnish workers (1965) and job attitudes among Soviet workers (1965). Reflecting the developmental state of management and organizational behavior theorizing at the time, many of these studies lacked sophistication in their approach to exploring differences. This situation was exacerbated by a lack of under- standing of the complex ways in which cultures might vary as well as in the influences of culture across myriad norms, processes and ways of thinking. Nevertheless, there was a concerted effort to identify and address the challenges of cross-cultural research. By the early 1960s, volumes on cross-cultural methodology had already begun to appear (Moore, 1961). This was also a period in which the hegemony of the U.S. economy led many scholars to consider American management approaches as the pinnacle to which managers and organizations in other countries should aspire. Also common at this time was a widely held view of industrialization imposing a set of technologi- cal imperatives that would lead all nations to a common form of manufacturing and management. This perspective, later referred to as the ‘‘technological imperative’’ (Tassey, 2007) was presumed to compel a convergence toward those behaviors that were most efficient. Consequently, it was not uncommon to find scholars who were focused on identifying universal management principles (Likert, 1963) or testing the applicability of American theories in other cultures (Nagandhi & Estafan, 1965; Newman, 1970). 2.2. 1960–1980: the rise of international From 1960 to 1980 the field of cross-cultural management focused primarily on the study of organizational behavior and management systems with a view of countries other than the U.S. as having cultural and organizational systems that were viewed as ‘‘foreign’’ or ‘‘other’’ in nature. Following World War II, large, primarily American, firms began to look to overseas markets to enhance revenue, and much attention was focused in the literature on uncovering how local cultural, legal, business, and political systems operated. Dominant organizational structuring was reflected in ‘‘international division’’ and ‘‘foreign subsidiary’’ configurations with a heavy focus on the control function of expatriate managers sent from headquarters and the home country to supervise and train local managers. There was recognition of difference, but also an implicit focus on identifying and emphasizing those values and practices that home and host country have in common.