follow all links

1. the first part to do is

2. second part is do

Chapter 2 Hackers, Crackers, and Phone Phreaks Chapter Outline I. Introduction II. The Evolution of the Term “Hacker” A. There are many different definitions available for the term “hacker.” B. Today, individuals who claim to be hackers argue that true hackers are interested in furthering computer security and that those who do not conform to this belief system are not hackers in the truest sense of the word. C. The origin of the term “hacker” can be traced back to the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), which was one of the first institutions in the United States to offer computer programming and computer science courses. 1. The term is believed to have first been used in a computer context by the members of the Artificial Intelligence Lab at MIT. 2. The members began referring to themselves as hackers because they were able to take computer programs and make them perform actions not originally intended by the designers of the computer software. D. The term “hacker” remained a relatively obscure term until crimes committed via computer began gaining more publicity in the media. 1. The term became associated with individuals who were using their personal computers to gain unauthorized access to other individuals’ and businesses’ computers. E. Cracker is generally used to refer to one who violates software copyright protections and gains inappropriate access to password protected files and services. III. The Introduction of Hacking to the Public A. The linking of computers to share resources has raised the level of potential harm to the point where computer-related attacks can impact national, as well as international, security. B. It could be considered ironic that technology that was developed as a means of improving research, education, training, and information sharing has developed into one of the most used criminal tools in history. C. High-profile media events would introduce the general public to the potential dangers of computer hacking. 1. Early 1983—a series of rather serious computer break-ins a. Discovered that at least 60 computers belonging to the Memorial Sloan- Kettering Cancer Center and the Los Alamos National Laboratory were compromised. b. As a result of the FBI’s investigation it was determined that the break- ins were committed by a gang of teenagers that referred to themselves as the 414 Gang—likely a tribute to the area code from which they were committing their crimes. c. Results—In 1986, legislation was finally approved and termed the Computer Fraud and Abuse Act (CFAA). i. Made the unauthorized access of a federal interest computer an illegal act. ii. Only addressed hacking into federally controlled computers unless the incident occurred across two or more different states. 2. Late 1988—On November 2, 1988, Robert Morris, a Cornell University graduate student, inadvertently released a computer program that would come to be referred to as a worm program. a. Morris gained extreme notoriety for being the first person charged under the CFAA; this recognition led to Morris being inducted into several hacker halls of fame. b. Because of the unique circumstances surrounding the case of Robert Morris, the Cornell Commission was developed and charged with the dual task of investigating the incident and making recommendations on how to prevent future occurrences. i. Morris’s actions were indeed accidental in nature and as a result of his actions, several security deficiencies in the computer systems were detected. ii. The worm program resulted in a positive change and improvement in computer security. c. Morris was ultimately sentenced to three years probation, was fined $10,000, and was ordered to perform 400 hours of community service. 1. Late 1980s–early 1990s—As a teenager in the 1980s, Kevin Mitnick was constantly in trouble with authorities because of his inappropriate activities involving computers. a. In the early 1990s, however, Mitnick’s name became very well known when he was tracked cross-country by a computer engineer whose computer Mitnick had illegally accessed. b. Mitnick became regarded as a serious criminal and holds the distinction of being the first computer-related criminal to be featured on the television show “America’s Most Wanted.” c. Mitnick is credited with bringing the issue of hacking to the forefront of the nation’s attention and scaring the government into believing that hacking could be dangerous. d. Over the course of his criminal career, Mitnick managed to gain access to some of the most guarded computer systems in the country through a combination of computer programming skills and social engineering ability. e. As a result of his incarceration, Mitnick became arguably the world’s most popular hacker. IV. The Types of Hackers A. There are generally four categories of hackers recognized in the hacker/cracker community: black-hat hackers, white-hat hackers, gray-hat hackers, and script kiddies. B. In this work, there will be two additional types of hackers discussed: the hactivist and the cyberterrorist. C. Black-hat Hackers 1. These are individuals who violate computer security for little reason beyond maliciousness or for personal gain. 2. Hackers write programs to damage computer systems and networks; the result is that computer security and anti-virus manufacturing have become full-time enterprises. D. White-hat Hackers 1. Main objective is to provide computer security programs that will protect systems from being illegally and maliciously penetrated. 2. Hackers will still search out target computers and then attempt to hack into the systems, but once successful, they will normally cease their activities and alert the owner of the computer system to the vulnerability. E. Gray-hat Hackers 1. These hackers are a combination of white-hat and black-hat hackers and are opportunistic. 2. Hackers will search target computers, gain access, notice the system’s owner, but they will normally elect to offer to repair the defect for a small amount of money. 3. While this may appear to be a form of blackmail, in the business world such decisions may be a matter of cost-benefit analysis. 4. Recently, the practice has witnessed a decrease in use as more businesses have elected to prosecute individuals who attempt these acts. F. Script Kiddies 1. Lowest level on the “hacking ladder,” and may have little to no computer programming skills. 2. May not even be considered a hacker at all, given the average level of computer skill these individuals possess. 3. Script kiddies earn their names from their ability to surf the Internet looking for hacker utility programs and then launching the programs at a target computer system. 4. Most dangerous of the hackers because this individual has no idea how the program will affect the computer system the attack is being launched upon. G. Hactivists 1. The hactivist is an individual who hacks as a means of spreading their political message. 2. The majority of hactivist attacks involve web page defacement, which refers to when a hacker gains access to the server that is storing a web page and then modifies the page to display their own message. H. Cyberterrorist 1. Cyberterrorist refers to an individual who uses their hacking ability to instill a sense of fear into the public. 2. The cyberterrorist is one who would break into a computer system or network and then in some way manage to cause damage or death because of the loss of the service. V. Hacker Technique and Modus Operandi A. Many people are under the assumption that all activities related to hacking are conducted from the safety of their home and involves only the computer and the Internet. B. Pre-hacking stage is defined as the process of using the physical techniques that precede the actual act of hacking into the computer. 1. Targeting is the first step in the pre-hack stage. a. Determine which computer system or network they will attack. b. Today, the method of selecting an actual company or network may involve one of two methods. i. May physically select a target that is of interest to them. ii. Use of a port scanner (software packages that scan computer networks to determine if any computers have open port settings). 1. Because these open ports allow for information to pass into and out of computers, it is also a primary method for hackers to gain access to a computer; and, once the computer is controlled, the network is also available to the hacker. 1. The second stage of pre-hacking is known as the researching and information- gathering phase. a. Physically visit or contact the target in hopes of gaining information that will assist in penetrating the system. b. Researching will normally involve one of two different techniques. i. Use of social engineering, which may be employed when the hacker contacts the system administrator under the auspices of being a legitimate user who is locked out of the system. ii. Reverse social engineering, which is when the hacker will let the system administrator or a network user contact them for assistance. iii. Use of dumpster diving, which refers to the act of literally climbing inside a trash dumpster and searching for information that could be of benefit to the hacker when he or she attacks the computer network. . D. Once the researching stage has been completed, the hacker will begin the actual hack of the computers or network. 1. The hacker will at this point attack the target using their hacker tool kit. 2. The hacker tool kit is a collection of software that a hacker will need to gain entry-level access. a. According to Dr. K., a self-proclaimed hacker and e-zine publisher from the United Kingdom, any hacker tool kit must contain the following items: password grabbers and key loggers, blue boxing programs, war dialers, encryption software, program password crackers, BIOS password crackers, security vulnerabilities scanners, packet sniffers, and UNIX vulnerabilities