Elements of the text to pay attention to when reading:
the WHAT: author’s key points (i.e., the
substance
)
What are the author’s most significant claims?
What examples, reasons, and evidence does the author provide to support these claims?
the HOW & WHY: author’s rhetorical choices (i.e., the
style
&
medium
)
Why is the information and/or argument presented this way?
How do things like context, purpose, and intended audience influence the final form (tone, content, structure, etc.) the message takes?
the READER (hey, that’s you!): thoughts, feelings, & other personal reactions or connections prompted by the reading
In what ways did the reading confirm, alter, and/or complicate your assumptions and ideas about this topic?
Which rhetorical moves do you consider most effective, and why?
What, for you, were some of the weaknesses, limitations, or oversights of the article, and how might they be corrected?
What personal connections did you make, if any, while reading?
the RELEVANCE: connections to this class
What does this have to do with any of the problems, questions, and concerns that are likely to come up when considering writing, language, and literacy practices in academic, professional, or everyday contexts?
What insights from the article might you apply to the class project you’re currently working on?
263-280 Poyrazli May 07 Full Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at http://www.tandfonline.com/action/journalInformation?journalCode=vjrl20 The Journal of Psychology ISSN: 0022-3980 (Print) 1940-1019 (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/vjrl20 An Exploratory Study of Perceived Discrimination and Homesickness: A Comparison of International Students and American Students Senel Poyrazli & Marcos Damian Lopez To cite this article: Senel Poyrazli & Marcos Damian Lopez (2007) An Exploratory Study of Perceived Discrimination and Homesickness: A Comparison of International Students and American Students, The Journal of Psychology, 141:3, 263-280, DOI: 10.3200/JRLP.141.3.263-280 To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.3200/JRLP.141.3.263-280 Published online: 07 Aug 2010. Submit your article to this journal Article views: 1854 View related articles Citing articles: 59 View citing articles http://www.tandfonline.com/action/journalInformation?journalCode=vjrl20 http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/vjrl20 http://www.tandfonline.com/action/showCitFormats?doi=10.3200/JRLP.141.3.263-280 https://doi.org/10.3200/JRLP.141.3.263-280 http://www.tandfonline.com/action/authorSubmission?journalCode=vjrl20&show=instructions http://www.tandfonline.com/action/authorSubmission?journalCode=vjrl20&show=instructions http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/mlt/10.3200/JRLP.141.3.263-280 http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/mlt/10.3200/JRLP.141.3.263-280 http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/citedby/10.3200/JRLP.141.3.263-280#tabModule http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/citedby/10.3200/JRLP.141.3.263-280#tabModule An Exploratory Study of Perceived Discrimination and Homesickness: A Comparison of International Students and American Students SENEL POYRAZLI Pennsylvania State University–Harrisburg MARCOS DAMIAN LOPEZ Northern Illinois University, DeKalb ABSTRACT. The authors examined group differences in perceived discrimination and homesickness in a sample of 439 college students (198 international and 241 U.S. stu- dents) from 2 campuses of the same university. Within the international student group, the authors also examined relationships between homesickness, discrimination, age, English proficiency, and years of residence in the United States. Results indicated that interna- tional students experienced higher levels of discrimination and homesickness than did U.S. students. Age, English proficiency, and perceived discrimination predicted home- sickness among the international students. Younger students, students with lower levels of English proficiency, and students with higher levels of perceived discrimination reported having higher levels of homesickness. Also, years of residence and race or ethnicity pre- dicted international students’ level of perceived discrimination. Being a European inter- national student predicted lower levels of perceived discrimination than did being an inter- national student from other regions of the world. The authors discuss implications for higher-education institutions and counseling personnel. Keywords: discrimination, homesickness, international students, U.S. college students HOMESICKNESS, A COMPONENT OF CULTURE SHOCK, is a major prob- lem for college students, particularly those new to the university system (S. Fisher & Hood, 1987; Tognoli, 2003). Homesickness is a psychological reaction to the absence of significant others and familiar surroundings (Archer, Ireland, Amos, Broad, & Currid, 1998). The effects of homesickness are typically negative and can include loneliness, sadness, and adjustment difficulties for students entering the university environment (Constantine, Kindaichi, Okazaki, Gainor, & Baden, 2005; Address correspondence to Senel Poyrazli, Penn State Harrisburg, W-311, Middletown, PA 17057; poyrazli@psu.edu (e-mail). 263 The Journal of Psychology, 2007, 141(3), 263–280 Copyright © 2007 Heldref Publications 263-280 Poyrazli May 07 4/28/07 10:41 AM Page 263 Stroebe, van Vliet, Hewstone, & Willis, 2002). Another problem faced by college students is ethnic and racial discrimination, which still seems to be prevalent on U.S. university campuses (Biasco, Goodwin, & Vitale, 2001; D’Augelli & Hersh- berger, 1993; Hodson, Dovidio, & Gaertner, 2002; Hurtado, 1992; Rankin & Rea- son, 2005). Although university officials have tried to reduce ethnic and racial dis- crimination, researchers have not found significant reductions (McCormack, 1995, 1998; Phenice & Griffore, 1994). This combination of ethnic and racial discrimi- nation and homesickness can produce feelings of loneliness, alienation, depression, and anxiety for college students, particularly non-White students (S. Fisher & Hood, 1987; Leong & Ward, 2000; Stroebe et al.; Zheng & Berry, 1991). Howev- er, non-White students are not the only students at risk for experiencing ethnic and racial discrimination and culture shock. International students are also at great risk (Ying, Lee, & Tsai, 2000; Zheng & Berry). Our main purpose in the current study was to determine if international students perceived more discrimination and expe- rienced more homesickness than did U.S. students. We also examined differences in levels of homesickness and perceived discrimination, age, gender, race or eth- nicity, grade point average (GPA), years of residence in the United States, and Eng- lish proficiency among international students. Homesickness and Culture Shock Homesickness in college students is usually discussed as a byproduct of cul- ture shock, which can induce feelings such as alienation, anxiety, depression, homesickness, rejection and loss, hopelessness, and low self-esteem (Pedersen, 1995; Ward, Bochner, & Furnham, 2001). Homesickness is a longing and desire for familiar environments and can sometimes take the form of depressive symp- toms (Pedersen; Van Tilburg, Vingerhoets, & Van Heck, 1996, 1997). Many researchers have found that homesickness affects individuals’ behav- iors and physical and psychological well being. S. Fisher and Hood (1987) found that college students who were homesick received low scores on adaptation to the college environment and higher scores on physical complaints, anxiety, and absentmindedness. Tognoli (2003) found that college students who lived farther away from their families experienced more homesickness and visited their fam- ilies more often than did students whose families lived closer. Students who were homesick received lower scores on self-esteem measures and internal locus of control measures as compared with students who were not homesick. Depression is also a common side effect. Several researchers (e.g., Beck, Taylor, & Robbins, 2003; Stroebe et al., 2002) found a positive correlation between homesickness and depression. Furthermore, Van Tilburg, Vingerhoets, Van Heck, and Kirschbaum (1999) reported that people who were homesick had more physical complaints, exhibited poorer mood (e.g., greater depression and anxiety), and experienced greater cognitive failures (e.g., difficulty with memory and concen- tration) than did people who were not homesick. 264 The Journal of Psychology 263-280 Poyrazli May 07 4/28/07 10:41 AM Page 264 Evidence indicates that age and gender are related to homesickness; that younger people tend to experience more homesickness than do older people (e.g., Kazantzis & Flett, 1998); and that women experience more homesickness than do men (Stroebe et al., 2002). However, other researchers found that age and homesickness do not have a linear relationship, but that particular age groups are more likely to experience homesickness than are others (Eureling-Bontekoe, Brouwers, & Verschuur, 2000). Another factor related to homesickness is social support. Van Tilburg et al. (1997) indicated that individuals with plenty of social support are less likely to suffer from homesickness than are individuals who lack social support. Urani, Miller, Johnson, and Petzel (2003) conducted a path analysis and similarly found that social support was negatively related to homesickness in undergraduate stu- dents from a U.S. university. Although culture shock and homesickness seem to affect the majority of col- lege students, some groups seem to be affected more than others. For instance, Loo and Rolison (1986) postulated that non-White U.S. students entering the university environment in the United States would experience feelings such as alienation and isolation because of their entrance into a new culture where White, middle-class values are the norm. They concluded that the academic difficulty and alienation experienced by non-White students in the university setting stemmed, in part, from culture shock (Loo & Rolison). Nora and Cabrera (1996) hinted at the same conclusion but also indicated that the level of perceived dis- crimination would likely affect the adjustment process for non-White U.S. stu- dents, increasing the difficulty of adjustment. If culture shock does occur in non- White U.S. students, as the literature suggests, then international students may experience more culture shock because of the transition into a new country that may be far from home. This is important to note because, if culture shock and discrimination elicit similar emotions (e.g., homesickness, depression, anxiety, alienation; Ward et al., 2001), they may work in conjunction with compound feelings of negativity. International students have trouble adjusting to their new surroundings, pri- marily because of culture shock, which stems from confusion about the norms of the new culture (Chapdelaine & Alexitch, 2004; Pedersen, 1995; Ward et al., 2001). Chapdelaine and Alexitch determined that international students experi- enced more culture shock, or a greater sense of social difficulty, than did host stu- dents. In addition, students who experienced greater cultural differences had less social interaction with host students, and lower levels of social interaction with host students intensified culture shock. Chataway and Berry (1989) found the same result in a population of Chinese, French Canadian, and English Canadian students studying in Canada. They determined that Chinese students, the major- ity of whom was international, experienced the greatest cultural difference, poor- est mental and physical health, and highest acculturative stress and tended to have less social interaction with host students. Poyrazli & Lopez 265 263-280 Poyrazli May 07 4/28/07 10:41 AM Page 265 Homesickness may be more pronounced depending on the country of origin of the sojourners. Greater differences between one’s culture and the host culture will result in more homesickness experienced (Eurelings-Bontekoe et al., 2000). Yeh and Inose (2003) found that European students reported less stress from culture shock than did Asian, African, and Latin American students. Students who were more fluent in English and had more social support also experienced less stress. Racial and Ethnic Discrimination Researchers have studied racial and ethnic discrimination in the United States, particularly on college campuses, since the civil rights movement (Hur- tado, 1992). Results indicate that, although the United States has become a more multicultural society, large disparities exist between White and non- White individuals’ perceptions of discrimination, its effects, and those affected by it (e.g., Biasco et al., 2001; D’Augelli & Hershberger, 1993; Hodson et al., 2002; Hurtado; Rankin & Reason, 2005). Gossett, Cuyjet, and Cockriel (1998) found that, compared with White stu- dents, African American students perceived significantly more discrimination from the administration, their peers, and faculty. Ancis, Sedlacek, and Mohr (2000) found that African American students perceived significantly more racial tension and separation than did White and Asian American students. African American, Asian American, and Latino participants reported more pressure than did White participants to conform to their racial and ethnic stereotypes, as well as to reduce any physical differences to gain acceptance by the campus culture. African American and Asian American students were also more likely to perceive faculty racism than were White students (e.g., faculty promoting unfair treatment toward a group