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An exploration of crime by policewomen RESEARCH ARTICLE An exploration of crime by policewomen Philip Matthew Stinsona*, Natalie Erin Todakb and Mary Dodgec aCriminal Justice Program, Bowling Green State University, Bowling Green, OH, USA; bSchool of Criminology and Criminal Justice, Arizona State University, Phoenix, AZ, USA; cSchool of Public Affairs, University of Colorado Denver, Denver, CO, USA The current study explores criminal conduct by policewomen. This information is increasingly relevant as police departments hire more women, especially if the crimes committed by policewomen differ from those of policemen. News searches identified 105 cases depicting arrests of policewomen. A content analysis was performed. Findings indicate differences exist between crimes committed by policemen and policewomen, as well as by policewomen and women in general. Crime by policewomen is most often profit-motivated. Policewomen had fewer years of service and lower ranks, committed less violent crimes, and were more likely to receive suspensions for off-duty crimes compared to their male peers. Keywords: policewomen; police crime; crime by policewomen; police misconduct Crime committed by police officers represents a major concern with far-reaching implications for both law enforcement agencies and communities. Police crime generates public disapproval and undermines public confidence, as citizens expect the police to serve and protect public interests. Police officers are expected to behave in a manner beyond reproach. As in all professions, however, a small number of employees fail to meet ethical and legal standards. Previous research has documented a wide variety of police crime and corruption including perjury, bribery, extortion, robbery, burglary, drug use, domestic assault, and brutality (Barker & Carter, 1994; Gorta, 2009; Kappeler, Sluder, & Alpert, 1998; McDowell, 1984; Miller & Braswell, 1985; Reiss, 1971; Roebuck & Barker, 1974; Sherman, 1981). While much work has focused on police crime, misconduct, and corruption, few studies have analyzed the nature and extent of crime committed exclusively by policewomen. This area represents an important field of study for three reasons. First, diversity in the police force is an articulated goal of modern police departments, and agencies are proactive in efforts to increase the presence of women on the job. As this continues, a deeper understanding of crimes committed by policewomen will become increasingly necessary. Second, research shows the occupational experiences of policewomen are different from those of policemen. Researchers should therefore adopt a narrow focus to identify and address whether these differences lead to variations of police crime between policemen and policewomen. Finally, police crime is a salient concern to the general public. As policewomen represent a small percentage of the total police force in most jurisdictions, crimes by policewomen may have a greater influence on the public’s perceptions of the police. *Corresponding author. Email:
[email protected] © 2013 Taylor & Francis Police Practice and Research, 2015 Vol. 16, No. 1, 79–93, http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/15614263.2013.846222 mailto:
[email protected] http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/15614263.2013.846222 The current study examines cases of police crime specifically involving policewomen. The information will establish a framework for understanding how occupational roles in a male-dominated profession shape or fail to shape gender behavior in criminal activities. The research adds to extant literature by focusing on crimes committed by policewomen and offering comparisons of crimes by policewomen and policemen – an area largely neglected in empirical work. We explore the nature of crime by policewomen in the USA through a content analysis of news articles reporting the arrests of non-federal law enforcement officers. Data were collected in real time throughout years 2005–2007. Police crime in this research is defined as (a) those crimi- nal offenses, (b) committed by sworn law enforcement officers with the general powers of arrest by virtue of their employment, (c) at the time the offense was committed, and/ or (d) at the time of their arrest. The data explore (1) the criminal offenses charged against each arrested officer, (2) type of law enforcement agency employing the arrested officer, (3) their victims, and (4) collateral adverse employment outcomes imposed against arrested officers. The next section reviews scholarly literature associated with police crime and gender-based distinctions in law enforcement. Literature review Sworn officers in state and local law enforcement agencies take an oath of office to be above reproach both on- and off-duty, obey all laws, and show integrity in all aspects of their lives. As a result, prior research has attempted to classify and understand the nature of police corruption (illegal abuse of authority), police misconduct (breach of department policy), police crime (criminal activity), and their correlates. The current study focuses exclusively on police crime. The following review summarizes existing data on the nature of police crime in the USA, followed by a discussion of research on the similarities and differences of male and female police officers. The final section describes the impact of gender on police crime, though relatively few studies have analyzed criminal activity committed by female officers specifically. The nature of police crime Stories of police officers breaking the law attract considerable public attention and are damaging to the integrity and legitimacy of police departments (Stinson, Liederbach, & Freiburger, 2010). Information on the nature and extent of these occurrences is, however, limited and the number of sworn officers who have engaged in criminal behavior is still largely unknown (Anechiarico & Jacobs, 1996; Barak, 1995; Kane, 2007; Stinson et al., 2010; Stinson, Liederbach, & Freiburger, 2012). In general, studies show some police officers commit a variety of misdemeanor and felony offenses (Fyfe & Kane, 2006; Harris, 2010; Stinson et al., 2012). Police crime occurs in small and large law enforcement agencies located in every state throughout the USA, both on- and off-duty (Stinson et al., 2012). Early studies of police crime revealed some officers commit on-duty criminal activity, including the acceptance of bribes and petty theft (e.g. Key, 1935; Knapp Commission, 1972; Pennsylvania Crime Commission, 1974; Reiss, 1971). More recent studies found officers also commit many crimes off duty (Fyfe & Kane, 2006; Kane & White, 2009; Mollen Commission, 1994). These crimes are more likely to be assault-related offenses, liquor law violations, statutory rape, drunkenness, pornography/obscenity offenses, certain sex offenses, and driving under the influence (DUI) (Stinson et al., 2012). Officers who are arrested for crimes 80 P.M. Stinson et al. committed both on- and off-duty are more likely than other officers who are arrested to receive a suspension as a final adverse employment outcome. Likewise, arrests for on-duty crimes are more likely to result in an arrested officer’s resignation, and arrests of officers for off-duty crimes are more likely to result in the termination of the officers’ employment (Stinson et al., 2012). Existing data on police crime predominantly depict criminal activity committed by policemen. Research on policewomen, however, suggests their occupational experiences are different from their male coworkers. The following section summarizes this literature and underscores the need for further research examining the nature of police crime by women. Occupational experiences of male and female officers Beginning in the 1970s, the first policewomen assigned to patrol duties reported marginalization, hostility, and harassment, as well as difficulties negotiating between feminine and crime-fighter identities (Martin, 1980). Training academies, department facilities, and department policies were not accommodating to female officers. The stories of policewomen have since evolved, yet they still report difficulties on the job (Rabe-Hemp, 2011). Policewomen often report a need to prove themselves before they are accepted as equals (Belknap & Shelley, 1992; Rabe-Hemp, 2011). They are also uniquely affected by conflict between work and family life (Grosswald, 2003). This is perhaps because women are regarded as less dedicated parents for choosing to work a full-time career (Martin, 1980), and as less effective police officers for choosing to have and raise a family (Martin & Jurik, 2007). Taken as a whole, these subjective reports suggest, while policewomen have become integrated into the profession, they have not yet gained full acceptance into the police subculture. Some research indicates policewomen are more effective in diffusing potentially violent situations by engaging in less aggressive behavior (Bloch & Anderson, 1974; Hale, 1992; Schuck & Rabe-Hemp, 2005; Sherman, 1975; Sichel, Friedman, Quint, & Smith, 1978). They establish better citizen relationships and use less aggressive styles (Belknap & Shelley, 1992; Christopher Commission, 1991), hold higher ethical standards (Hunt, 1990; Huon, Hesketh, Frank, McConkey, & McGrath, 1995; Miller & Braswell, 1992), and may be excluded from exposure to rule bending and breaking by male peers (Brown, Maidment, & Bull, 1993). Finally, scholars have found patterns of alcohol use are similar between male and female officers (Ballenger et al., 2011). While some have found policewomen are more likely to engage in binge drinking compared to male counterparts (Ballenger et al., 2011; Davey, Obst, & Sheehan, 2000), others found few or no differences (Lindsay, 2008; Mandell, Eaton, Anthony, & Garrison, 1992; Stinson, DeBakey, & Steffens, 1992). The following section reviews the limited knowledge we have on police crime by gender. Policewomen and crime Potential differences in crimes committed by female and male officers have been largely ignored in empirical research thus far (Violanti et al., 2011). Previous studies show male officers are more likely to be charged with serious misconduct (Timmins & Hainsworth, 1989), engage in more use of force (McElvain & Kposowa, 2008; Peak & Glensor, 1996; Rabe-Hemp, 2008a, 2008b), and are subject to more citizen complaints (Hickman, Piquero, & Greene, 2000; Waugh, Ede, & Alley, 1998). Fyfe and Kane (2006) found Police Practice and Research: An International Journal 81 male New York Police Department (NYPD) officers were more likely to be fired for bribery, but found no other differences in other profit-oriented misconduct. A higher number of female NYPD officers were terminated for off-duty conduct and administra- tive rule breaking. Nevertheless, Kane and White (2009, 2013) found officer gender was unrelated to career-ending misconduct in the NYPD. Despite the ongoing controversies in the research literature on differences between the conduct of male and female police officers, little empirical data exist on criminal behavior by policewomen. This study provides an exploratory framework for examining the crimes committed by police- women (as measured by their being arrested) and explores in more detail the differences between crimes committed by male and female law enforcement officers. Method This study is an exploratory and descriptive examination of criminal conduct by policewomen. Data were collected as part of a comprehensive study on police crime. The larger study was designed to locate cases reported in the news media in which sworn officers had been arrested for one or more criminal offenses. The primary information source was the Internet-based