Discuss the contribution that victim surveys and self-reported surveys make to our understanding of criminal offending.
- What are the advantages of these two tools compared to the UCR (Uniform Crime Report)?
- What are the potential disadvantages with victim surveys and self-reported surveys as data collection tools compared to the UCR?
- Is there a need for both (explain more than yes or no)?
- Do these data collection tools differ in their accuracy and usefulness based on the type of crime we want to understand?
PowerPoint Presentation POLICE AND POLICING Introduction: Police and Policing The most visible image of the formal control applied to the criminal justice system comes in the form of the various police agencies across the United States Approximately 73% of law enforcement agencies employ 24 or less officers The largest police agencies, however, employ the most police officers Typical police officer works in a larger police department Police provide a variety of services ranging and are referred to as the “agency of last resort.” Lost travelers Request for information Stranded motorists Animal complaints Domestic disputes Crime The Development of American Policing Police forces were not created in the United States until the 1840’s Origins of public police can be traced to our English tradition Law enforcement in England: After the Norman conquest of England in 1066, the Normans created a centralized government based on feudalism (English population were hostile over the takeover) High ranking officers and nobles of William the Conqueror’s army received control of large parcels of England These officers and Nobles further subdivided their land to lesser officers and required them to remit a portion of their profits and supply soldiers when needed. Shire Reeve (Known today as the Sheriff) – An early Saxon political office representing the head of a large group of families (shire), a forerunner to the office of sheriff; was responsible for the collection of taxes and other maintenance. The Development of American Policing Each manor also operated a manorial courts Office of the Constable was created to assist in manorial courts Constable – a court office in Norman England that had many administrative and public safety duties; a forerunner to the police. By the early 1800’s English towns and cities were crowded and the wealthy hired guards (footmen) Experiments with paid watches included: Bow Street Runners – Created by Henry Fielding; organized to provide police protection in the Bow street area of London 1820’a Sir Robert Peel proposed the creation of a police force for England to enforce laws, to maintain order and for the prevention of crime. Officers would be: Paid Armed Uniformed Disciplined American Law Enforcement American colonists relied on their experiences and traditions from England in developing a social control system Milestones in American Law Enforcement (1829 – 1940): 1829: Boston police department was created with 9 officers 1844: New York City police department was created with 800 officers 1852: Cincinnati and New Orleans police departments created 1854: Philadelphia and Boston police established formal patrol 1908: Creation of the Federal Bureau of Investigations 1930: Uniform Crime Reports first published 1931: Police Science Program started at San Jose State University 1935: FBI National Police Academy opened The American Police Most early police departments in America were not centrally organized and did not have strong leadership Initially, the principal duty of the police was to maintain order In the latter part of the nineteenth century, a reform effort to enhance police accountability and to professionalize police emerged Vollmer sought higher personnel standards and stronger police leadership Police were given strong central administration and a clear crime control mandate With the crime control mandate came an equally important definition of the police as serving a crime prevention function Police were expected to detect and apprehend offenders Police presence was expected to deter crime The Functions of The Police Three categories of policing: Law enforcement – activities that directly relate to the detection and apprehension of criminal offenders Responding to alarms, citizen complaints of crime, investigating suspicious persons and circumstances, as well as arresting suspected offenders Order maintenance is both the most important and the most troublesome Main purpose of police Function of the police that serve to maintain order, including settling disputes, dispersing crowds, keeping traffic flowing smoothly, etc. Service – This function has evolved over time out of necessity Citizens ask police to perform a variety of services that do not strictly conform to the role of crime control Giving directions; finding missing children; animal complaints; provide first aid Police as a Human Services Agency Defining what it is that police do is difficult because it is not necessarily clear what society wants police to do. A variety of social, political, legal, and administrative factors shape the police role Research shows us that most of what police do is not criminal law enforcement Many local police agencies, particularly small departments are consolidated with emergency medical services. Many police departments have specialty units such as: Search & Rescue; Bomb disposal; Undercover narcotics Police serve as a referral center for people in trouble, linking victims, the ill, and others in need of services with available community resources Police are available 24 hours a day/7 days a week. Police as a Crime Control Agency Police control crime in one of two basic ways: Reactive – A police department would only respond to complaints of criminal activity Example: Citizen call in to report a prowler around his house Proactive – Police would use its own initiative to actively go out and seek crime and those who commit crime Example: Traffic units running radar Police departments generally function under both forms of crime control. They respond to complaints of criminal activity as well as actively seek out crime and criminals. Police as A Peacekeeping Agency Peacekeeping refers to the maintenance of order Examples include: Police control disruptions such a fights and riots Respond to and deescalate neighborhood disputes Domestic violence call Loud parties Most order-maintenance problems fall into a gray area of law enforcement where the officers have no clear legal authority In an effort to maintain order, police frequently find themselves in situations of physical confrontations and danger. Example: Police respond to a call of a disorderly subject, who is intoxicated (displaying a knife). Police Management Police generally operate within one of three existing models: The rational-legal bureaucratic model The community-solving model The CompStat model Because of the size of police agencies, most agencies operate under a para-military structure – military-like structure; having the characteristics of a military organization such as formal ranks, a chain of command, pyramidal organizational structure and more. Police Management Police departments organize patrol units by geography into precincts or districts Information flows up the chain of command and orders flow down the chain of command Unlike a military structure, the paramilitary structure used by police departments allows police officers more discretion Reality is that police must react to a variety of circumstances which require immediate attention. It would not be practical for an officer to advise their superior of the circumstance and await orders on how to handle the situation An individual actively trying to kidnap a child or an active shooter in a school With the introduction of modern technology, policing changed Automobiles reduced foot patrol Radios and telephone allowed more communication between officers and citizens as well as more efficient communication Community Policing Community-oriented policing – is an approach to policing that relies on community definitions of police functions and a partnership between the police and the community in the production of public safety Each police officer is expected to have responsibility for their beat/ district. Officers work with the residents of their community to identify problems and implement solutions (This does not eliminate the need for traffic control, citations, warnings, or arrests, when required) Takes a proactive form of problem solving Generally requires a permanent assignment to a particular “beat” or “district” to enable to officers to have a better understanding of that community and the residents Community - Oriented Policing Implementation of community-oriented policing has not been easy in all departments. Some departments see it as a public-relations tool and do not fully implement the program Three primary obstacles to implementation include: Lack of resources Time constraints Cultural resistance from within the police department CompStat CompStat - Policing strategy giving the decision-making authority to the middle-level managers and then redirects resources as needed to assist solving each district’s specific problem. First implemented in New York City Four components of CompStat: Timely and accurate information and intelligence Rapid deployment of resources Effective tactics Relentless follow up A core component of CompStat is the use of increasingly sophisticated crime analysis and crime mapping technology Counterterrorism & Homeland Security Many police agencies view community policing as being complementary to homeland security Community policing can improve relations with the community, which can improve security. Many federal agencies now operate within the Department of Homeland Security Several federal and state initiatives involve police in counterterrorism activities. The biggest change in policing since 9/11 has been the growth if intelligence led policing The idea of basing police activity on criminal activity intelligence This involves the gathering and sharing of intelligence among law enforcement Creation of task forces, generally spearheaded by the FBI, with local law enforcement involved The Structure of American Policing Unlike police agencies in other countries, Most police agencies in the United States exist at the local level Americans do not want a national police This supports the value American citizens place on federalism and local autonomy The focus of police organization and administration is to standardize the use of civil force Police must weigh the mandate to control unlawful behavior against the requirement that they respect individual rights In response to this concern has been the development of rules and procedures for police to follow. Police agencies change slowly in response to external pressure Most police agencies (and even states) now require formal police training before officers can be assigned to patrol Academy training and field training add the element of preparing and evaluating the new officer for their role in law enforcement Structure of American Policing Four basic elements of larger police departments: Administration Communication Patrol Internal review Large police departments also use specialized units to handle specialized tasks: Traffic division Investigations (which can be subdivided into more specialized areas) Homicide Cold cases Robbery Narcotics The degree of specialization within a department depends on the size of the department: Small departments do not have the personnel allocate for specialization and therefore the patrol officer may be responsible for the case from initial contact through its conclusion Understanding Police There are many demands placed on police Enforcing criminal law is only one component Police deal with many social problems Police communities: Most policing happens at the local level The frequency and formality in which officers intervene can be classified in three basic styles: Legalistic – Involves relatively frequent and formal interventions Service Style – Involves relatively frequent, but informal interventions Watchman Style - involves infrequent intervention Understanding Police: Police organization and Officer Selection Police organizations - The actions of police officers and police departments reflect different patterns of organization Department policies and procedures as well as recruit training training serve as boundaries on police behavior Selection of Police Officers – Because it is believed that individual characteristics influence police decisions, the selection and training of police officers is an important aspect. Police selection typically involves as series of steps that are designed to produce the best police candidates Application Background Check Interview references Polygraph Psychological assessment Physical agility Interview Some aspects of the selection process may eliminate qualified (minority candidates such as females) or not eliminate all unqualified candidates. Understanding Police: Police Cultrue There is a distinct police culture in which officers share a widely accepted set of attitudes and occupational norms Police tend to isolate themselves from other members of society Tend to be more conservative and conformist, as compared to the rest of society