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The authors of your text state that "humans do not live by logic alone; we are social animals who like to impress each other, and we are pleasure-seeking animals. These factors help explain why people do some of the things they shouldn't do, including using drugs."
Is there any evidence that other species use psychoactive drugs? Provide supporting examples and evidence.
If there is any evidence that other species use psychoactive drugs, what are the implications of this for human drug use? If there is no evidence, what are the implications of this for human drug use?
Please answer both questions in your initial post.
PowerPoint Presentation CHD 440 Drugs, Values and Society [Title slide] 1 Navigation Menu 01 Overview of Drug Use 02 Drug Use as a Social Problem 03 Drug Policy 04 The Nervous System Overview of Drug Use Concerns About Drug Use Depends ON: How much is being used Who is using it When, where and why it is used Left image from: https://1i1uzk29qpyovwq5s2t9ptd1-wpengine.netdna-ssl.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/10/teenage_alcohol_abuse_caused_by_anxiety_and_depression_25532732.png Center image from: https://www.google.com/search?q=images+of+alcohol+abuse&rlz=1C1GGRV_enUS751US752&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwih5de21NnVAhVB3mMKHfEoCpoQ_AUICigB&biw=1344&bih=736#imgrc=CRsE0-IxVk24tM: https://1i1uzk29qpyovwq5s2t9ptd1-wpengine.netdna-ssl.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/10/teenage_alcohol_abuse_caused_by_anxiety_and_depression_25532732.png Right image from: http://www.alcoholabuse.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/11/alcohol-abuse-in-the-workplace-250x250.png 4 Important Points About Drug Use Use is not abuse - most people do not use the substance in ways that can be considered as abuse or dependence. Every drug has multiple effects - while users generally take a drug for a specific effect, drugs cause multiple effects because they act at many cites in the brain and body. Amount matters - larger and more frequent doses, as well as rapid onset of action may cause different effects compared to smaller and less frequent doses. Image from addictionsearch.com 5 Important Points About Drug Use (continued) Drugs per say are neither good or bad. Drugs are just chemicals on a shelf or a plant in the ground that are inactive until they enter the body. Blaming the drug can mask all of the many reasons that may lead a person to misuse or abuse a drug. Top image from: http://images.huffingtonpost.com/2016-08-19-1471649552-5287149-Drugs.jpg Center image from: http://images.indianexpress.com/2015/09/drungs.jpg Bottom image from: https://www.getsmartaboutdrugs.gov/sites/getsmartaboutdrugs.com/files/styles/menu_image/public/brain-development_0.png?itok=tePNb3f6 6 Important Terms to Remember Definitions Drug Illicit Drug Deviant Drug Use Any substance, natural or artificial, other than food, that by its chemical nature alters structure or function in a living organism. Drug Misuse A drug that is unlawful to possess or use. Drug use that is not common within a social group and is disapproved of by the majority. Use of drugs or chemicals in greater amounts than, or for purposes other than, those prescribed by a doctor. 7 Important Terms to Remember (continued) Although the DSM now uses the phrase “substance use disorder” the below terms are still used by some psychologists: Drug abuse - substance use in a manner, an amount, or in situations such that it causes social, occupational, psychological, or physical problems. Drug dependence - a more precise term than addiction. A state in which an individual uses a drug so frequently or consistently that it would be difficult for the person to stop. May be physiological and/or psychological. Upper image from: http://discovermagazine.com/~/media/Images/Issues/2014/Dec/brain-on-drugs.jpg Lower image from: https://www.janayugaya.lk/wp-content/uploads/2017/06/drugs-1.png 8 Drug Use Is Not New Drugs have been used throughout history to: Enhance spiritual experiences Grow economies Treat illnesses Image from: http://www.ancient-origins.net/sites/default/files/styles/large/public/Ancient-relief-carving-depicting-drug-use.jpg?itok=nmp4HO7e 9 Drug Use Is Not New (continued) Recent developments: Increase of legal pharmaceuticals Increased efforts of the “war on drugs” Image from: https://rashmanly.files.wordpress.com/2010/11/3714856645_ab1a3cbcd3-1.jpg?w=450&h=372&h=372 10 What Is the Extent of Drug Use? Very difficult to obtain accurate and complete information on: How many people use drugs. The amount of illicit drugs that are imported and sold. The extent of legal drug use such as alcohol, tobacco, and prescription drugs. We are able to get some information from national surveys Benefits: easy to use, inexpensive, efficient. Drawbacks: Bias in sample population (e.g., dropouts not counted). Potential inaccuracy of self-reports (among both users and non-users). Who Are the Users? There is a wide range of users because the rates and amounts of use vary within a substance-using population. This is true of all legal and elicit drugs of abuse. Image from: http://www.russellwebster.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/teenage-use-FI-726x408.jpg 12 Who Are the Users? (continued) The scope of users has important implications for: Prevention and treatment efforts. Law enforcement. Understanding dependence. Image from: http://www.dismalworld.com/im/black-economy/drug-use-3.jpg 13 Trends in Drug Use: National Surveys Two major national surveys have been used to obtain data about who uses drugs, as well as the prevalence and frequency of drug use. Data from the two surveys can examined together to give us more accurate and complete information about patterns of drug use in different populations: Monitoring the Future Survey - middle school, high school, and college students. National Survey on Drug Use and Health - in-person interviews of households including children and adults. 14 Trends in Drug Use Monitoring the Future Project (MTF) is a survey that gathers data from 8th–12th grade and college students which has been conducted annually for over 30 years. Data is collected on prevalence of drug use and perceived risk and availability of various drugs. The survey shows trends in drug use over time. Top Image from: http://www.newsinmind.com/wp/wp-content/uploads/2012/06/bigstock-Teenage-Couple-Taking-Drugs-At-13909049.jpg Bottom image from: http://www.swissinfo.ch/blob/7335316/f3ea2b50e57de3537a55cfffcfc53bf0/sriimg20090414-10572305-2-data.jpg 15 Monitoring the Future Source: The Monitoring the Future Study, The University of Michigan. 16 Trends in Drug Use (continued) National Survey on Drug Use and Health (NSDUH) gathers data from U.S. households (not just students) with face-to-face interviews with people ages 12 and above. The survey has been conducted annually for over 30 years, collecting data on prevalence and frequency of drug use. It shows trends over time. Image from: https://d14rmgtrwzf5a.cloudfront.net/sites/default/files/samhsa-nsduh-2.png 17 NSDUH Source: National Survey on Drug Use and Health. 18 NSDUH (continued) Source: National Survey on Drug Use and Health. 19 Variables that Correlate with Drug Use What is a correlate? Two variables that change together (a statistical relationship) such as drug use and gender. Important: Correlates do not mean cause (i.e., gender does not cause drug use). Risk factors - correlated with higher rates of drug use. For adolescent drug use these include having friends and knowing adults who use drugs, and engaging in antisocial activities. Protective factors - correlated with lower rates of drug use and include adolescent perception of strong sanctions against use and having parents as social support. 20 Some Known Example Correlates of Drug Use Genetics - may account for 38% of alcohol dependence disorder. Gender - more men than women use drugs. Level of education - college graduates are more likely to drink alcohol than high school graduates. Personality variables - individual diagnosed with a personality disorder may use drugs at a higher rate than those without a disorder. Gene image from: https://static1.squarespace.com/static/53e7daf0e4b0f490b900867f/t/5431915de4b07843ef42c55a/1412534631141/ Gender image from: https://hopespathway.files.wordpress.com/2015/08/gender.jpg Education image from: http://www.ibamag.com/files/image/Insurance%20Business/education.jpg Personality disorder image from: https://blogs.psychcentral.com/relationships-balance/files/2013/10/borderline-personality-disorder4-e1381665689964.jpg 21 Antecedents of Drug Use Antecedents - factors that occur prior to the initiation of drug use but are not necessarily the cause of use. Examples of antecedents include aggressiveness, attachment to a drug-using peer group, conduct problems, parental and community norms that support drug use, and poor academic performance. Images from: http://www.psychologicalscience.org/redesign/wp-content/uploads/2015/02/PAFF_022515_aggressionstrengthboys_newsfeature2.jpg; http://www.familiaysalud.es/sites/default/files/adolescentes_bebiendo.jpg 22 Gateway Substances Gateway substance - one of the first drugs used by a typical drug user that does not cause future drug use but may be an indicator of a more general pattern of deviance-prone behavior. Beer image from: http://www.edgewoodyachtclub.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/01/beer.gif Cigarette image from: https://www.ecigarettedirect.co.uk/ashtray-blog/wp-content/uploads/2012/02/cigarette-smoke.jpg Marijuana image from: http://wnyt.com/wnytimages/repository/2017-05/Marijuana.jpg 23 Motives for Drug Use There are many factors that may influence an individual to use drugs, including: Desire to experience an altered state of consciousness. Cultural trends or fads. Identification with a deviant subculture. Rebellious behavior. Reinforcing properties of drugs. Image from: http://crazzfiles.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/07/State-of-Consciousness-679x381.jpg 24 Influences on Drug Use 25 Drug Use as a Social Problem Societal Problems Resulting from Drug Use Dangers related to taking a drug include developing drug dependence or overdose. Drug use as a deviant act results in arrests, fines, jailing, and expenses associated with preventing drug use, misuse, prevention and treatment. Image from: rmysccn.org 27 Changes in U.S. Drug Laws Reasons why the U.S. changed from a laissez-faire attitude during the1800s to increasingly tight drug restriction: Toxicity -sale of toxic chemicals without labels or warnings. Dependence - sellers victimizing buyers by selling habit-forming compounds. Crime - drug users viewed as a threat to public safety. Drug-Related Toxicity Behavioral toxicity - drug use makes otherwise normal behaviors dangerous, like driving, operating machinery, etc. Physiological toxicity - drug use causes health problems, like overdose, damage to body (heart, lungs, brain, etc.). Acute versus Chronic toxicity: Acute - short-term effects of a single dose. Chronic - long-term effects from chronic drug use. Physiological Toxicity Acute - heroin or alcohol overdose (the user stops breathing). Chronic - heart disease, lung cancer and cirrhosis. 30 Behavioral Toxicity Acute - “drugged driving” or intoxication that impairs behavior and increases danger. Chronic - harmful lifestyle changes or strain on interpersonal relationships 31 Drug Abuse Warning Network DAWN is a system for collecting data on drug-related emergency room visits or deaths with data collected at some U.S. metropolitan hospitals. The system collects data on illicit drugs and misuse of legal prescription and over-the-counter drugs, but does not determine whether drugs caused the death or ER visit. DAWN Toxicity Data ER Visits Alcohol-in-combination Cocaine Prescription Opioids Marijuana Benzodiazepines Deaths Prescription Opioids Alcohol-in-combination Benzodiazepines Cocaine Methadone Image from rehab-international.org 33 What DAWN Does Not Tell Us Data are just the number of total ER visits/death, so the information collected does not indicate: Relative danger of a drug - number of problems as a proportion of total drug users. Cause of ER visit or death - drugs are mentioned in every case regardless of the cause of the accident. Image from: https://www.drugs.com/images/slideshow/1148-image-1422320854.jpg 34 Dangers of Drug Injection Blood-borne diseases are not due to the action of the drug itself. Rather, sharing needles passes infectious agents (like AIDS, HIV infection, and Hepatitis B & C) directly into the bloodstream. Syringe exchange programs can help reduce the spread of blood-born disease. Image from: http://www.nkytribune.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/03/NEP-Web-Banner.jpg 35 Substance Dependence Three Processes Tolerance Reduced effect of a drug after repeated use. Physical Dependence Defined by the presence of withdrawal syndrome. Dependence Indicated by high rate of drug use, drug craving, and relapse after stopping use. 36 Evolving Views of Dependence Prior to the 20th century - people with substance use problems viewed as weak-willed, lazy, or immoral. Early medical models - central to addiction is physical dependence. Hence treatment focused on withdrawal symptoms. Positive reinforcement model (1960s forward) - drugs reinforce behavior with or without physical dependence. Psychological dependence – drug use is a behavior that is reinforced by the positive reinforcement that occurs from the pharmacologic properties of the drug. Is increasingly viewed as the driving force underlying repeated drug use. Drug Use and Positive Reinforcement Consequence Johnny repeats the beer drinking behavior to experience its positive (reinforcing) effects After Johnny feels the pleasant effects of the alcohol Behavior Johnny drinks a beer Before Johnny has no alcohol in his body 38 DSM-5: Substance Use Disorders Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5) was developed by the American Psychiatric Association, providing diagnostic criteria/definitions for multiple disorders. Substance use disorder is specified for particular drugs,