APA 7,
o I am researching this title:
The Effects of Teacher-Led Instruction Combined with Computerized Writing Software for High School Students with Intellectual Disabilities.
o I need to cover two areas to finish the introduction. One area is about Teacher-led instruction. And the other one is about using computer-based interventions to teach writing skills to students with disabilities. For the second area, I want it to be written as
a funnel
showing what has been explored – getting closer and closer to the research purpose.
To do oct 2020 · I am researching this title: The Effects of Teacher-Led Instruction Combined with Computerized Writing Software for High School Students with Intellectual Disabilities. · I need to cover two areas to finish the introduction. One area is about Teacher-led instruction. And the other one is about using computer-based interventions to teach writing skills to students with disabilities. For the second area, I want it to be written as a funnel showing what has been explored – getting closer and closer to the research purpose. The total pages of this work will be three pages. · o.5 page is for Teacher-led instruction to teach writing skills to students with disabilities, including a small introduction and then the summarized articles 2 articles. · 1.5 pages are for using computer-based interventions, including a small introduction before the summarized articles. · 1 page is for the funnel. (see what I wrote in the last two pages of this order, improve written sentences / edit these pages to be 300 words and link it with what you do.) please make a reasnable link between Teacher-led instruction and using computer-based interventions and connect the last page as well. · The Articles: Summarizing the provided articles: Each one will be 250 words. · for: using computer-based interventions: 1. Using Simultaneous Prompting and Computer-Assisted Instruction with Pictures to Teach Narrative Writing Skills to Students with Significant Cognitive Disabilities 2. Effects of Modeling, Story Templates, and Self-Graphing in the Use of Story Elements by Students with Moderate Intellectual Disability 3. Word Processing as an Assistive Technology Tool for Enhancing Academic Outcomes of Students with Writing Disabilities in the General Classroom · For: Teacher-led instruction: I need to have a pdf of the article that you found. Implications of Reviewed Research and Research Questions Searching the professional literature in special education revealed that there is a scarcity of literature examining assistive technology for writing for high school students with intellectual disabilities. Writing is an important skill that is needed across all academic areas and students should be able to do at a functional level. Since this is an important skill for students because writing is used in all academic areas and the participants all struggle with basic writing skills this research will contribute to the field of writing education. All the participants are in high school and will graduate shortly. Thus, intervening now and gaining the information and knowledge on computer-assisted technology for writing is needed to assist in filling in the gap in literature. Therefore, the purpose of this study is to address the following research questions: (a) what effect will teacher-led instruction combined with computerized writing software have on organization, focus development, fluency, and convention for high school students who have an intellectual disability and (b) what is the social validity of this intervention? Reflection of Process of Reviewing Research I found this research review to be quite challenging because of the lack of literature for my specific topic. When the term intellectual disability was included in my literature search, the results dropped tremendously and it was surprising considering the characteristics of ID and how many people with disabilities have similar characteristics. I have encountered many students with ID and am surprised there is so little literature out there on this specific disability. After completing the research review I realized there was plenty of information on writing skills and strategies to help improve writing but sparse research on the use of technology and writing. The use of frequent technology such as word predication, spell check, automatic capitalization, etc. is often overlooked and forgotten but could help a student tremendously. I learned the struggles that students with disabilities face when learning how to write. The process is very complex and after reviewing the research I have learned that many students struggle with the planning, composing, and revising skills needed for effective writing (Mason, Harris, & Graham, 2011). The literature supports the notion that there needs to be more research on the use of assistive technology and writing. The few studies that do include assistive technology in the writing process have shown an improvement in the student’s abilities. That information is great for me as a special education teacher to carry with me into my classroom. I will be able to advocate for my students by providing effective research based strategies that the literature discuss explaining the positive outcomes of using assistive technology for writing in the classroom. Research Questions The specific research questions that will be addressed by this study are: (a) what effect will teacher-led instruction combined with computerized writing software have on organization, focus development, fluency, and convention for high school students who have an intellectual disability and (b) what is the social validity of this intervention? Word Processing as an Assistive Technology Tool for Enhancing Academic Outcomes of Students with Writing Disabilities in the General Classroom JOURNAL OF LEARNING DISABILITIES VOLUME 37, NUMBER 2, MARCH/APRIL 2004, PAGES 143–154 Word Processing as an Assistive Technology Tool for Enhancing Academic Outcomes of Students with Writing Disabilities in the General Classroom Orit E. Hetzroni and Betty Shrieber Abstract This study investigated the use of a word processor for enhancing the academic outcomes of three students with writing disabilities in a junior high school. A single-subject ABAB design was used to compare academic output produced during class time with and without a computer equipped with a word processor. The number of spelling errors, the number of reading errors, and the number of words used per text were counted, and the overall structure and organization of text were examined across all in-class materials. The data demon- strated a clear difference between handwritten and computer phases. In traditional paper-and-pencil phases, students produced out- comes that had more spelling mistakes, more reading errors, and lower overall quality of organization and structure in comparison with the phases in which a computer equipped with a word processor was used. The results did not indicate any noticeable difference in the number of words per text. Implications and future research directions are discussed. Students with learning disabilities(LD) experience significant diffi-culties with the writing process (Bahr, Nelson, & Van Meter, 1997; Newcomer & Barenbaum, 1991). A sig- nificant portion of school time (i.e., 30%–60%) is dedicated to various writ- ing assignments (McHale & Cermak, 1992). Whereas most of the students cope with the writing tasks, students with LD have difficulties in fulfilling their demands (Graham & Weintraub, 1996), resulting in reduced academic achievement throughout the school years (Deuel, 1994; Wong, 1996). Written language disorders have been referred to as failures in develop- mental output (Berninger, 1994; Deuel, 1994). Written language problems usu- ally occur in the context of reading or of arithmetic and mathematics (Siegel, 1999). Some individuals have difficul- ties only with writing or spelling. Spelling difficulties can occur also in the absence of severe reading disabili- ties; however, this form of isolated writing disorder is relatively rare (Ber- ninger, 1994; Siegel, 1999). The term dysgraphia refers to a childhood disor- der of written language expression (Deuel, 1994). Developmental dys- graphia is described in conjunction with dyslexia, motor clumsiness, or spatial difficulty (Deuel, 1994). Students with dysgraphia write slowly, they form let- ters incorrectly, and their final product is messy and often illegible (Lewis, Graves, Ashton, & Kieley, 1998). Their errors may include errors in handwrit- ing, illegible letter formation, spacing errors, margin errors, and punctuation and spelling errors (Schumaker, Nolan, & Deshler, 1985; Wong, 1996). A major goal for educators working with students with LD is to provide ap- propriate support to enhance their op- portunities to achieve academic and social skills (Villa, Thousand, Stain- back, & Stainback, 1993). Lewis et al. (1998) indicated two major approaches to the writing problems of students with LD. The first centers on modifica- tion of the traditional instructional pro- cedures used to teach writing skills, and the second on using word pro- cessing for improving writing skills. In the last decade, technological ad- vances have provided new opportuni- ties for individuals with LD (B. R. Bryant & Seay, 1998). Assistive tech- nology (AT) is a tool for making the learning environment more accessible and for enhancing individual produc- tivity (Day & Edwards, 1996). Al- though AT is recognized in the area of rehabilitation for persons with physi- cal disabilities, it has also received attention as a tool for helping individ- uals with LD and other specific cogni- tive deficits (Day & Edwards, 1996; MacArthur, 2000; Raskind & Higgins, 1998). JOURNAL OF LEARNING DISABILITIES144 The majority of reports involving students with LD using AT have inves- tigated written language difficulties (Day & Edwards, 1996). An early study investigating the use of a word proces- sor as a tool for improving writing skills in elementary school–age chil- dren with LD and mild mental retar- dation found that they improved their writing skills once they learned key- boarding (Margalit & Roth, 1989). Lan- gone and Willis (1994–1995) compared the use of a computer-based word processor with the use of a paper and pencil for teaching writing skills to el- ementary school students with LD. An alternating treatment design was used to compare the relative effects of each instructional strategy. The results indi- cated that both strategies were effec- tive for teaching writing skills, with individual differences between the stu- dents (Langone & Willis, 1994–1995). A longitudinal study comparing two groups of elementary school students with and without access to a word pro- cessor found that the students who were using word processing demon- strated significantly greater writing com- petence in meaning, in content quality, in writing form, and in surface features (Owston & Wideman, 1997). Students with LD can derive great benefits from using word processors. The ability to produce a product that can be edited, spell-checked, read, and presented to the teacher can increase motivation and encourage writing, because spe- cific problems with handwriting and spelling can be circumvented (Mac- Arthur & Graham, 1987; MacArthur & Shneiderman, 1986). Research comparing the abilities and the outcomes of students with LD and those of typical students revealed that although the receptive vocabulary and oral language abilities of students with learning disabilities were similar to those of students with typical abilities, the written outcomes (i.e., spelling and perceptual–motor skills) of the stu- dents with LD were significantly lower (Johnson & Carlisle, 1996; Newcomer & Barenbaum, 1991). Johnson and Car- lisle (1996) reported that the ability to produce improved written material may be enhanced once the students use word processing. They also indicated that the use of word processing might enable individuals with LD to focus on issues such as structure, organization, and clarity of writing, which would also assist them in reading their own products (Johnson & Carlisle, 1996). An overview of research on the use of AT by postsecondary students with LD revealed that AT was effective for