(a) You show up for the exam because the teacher required you to take it. (b) Because many students do poorly on the exam, the teacher schedules extra lectures on this material and an additional exam....

(a) You show up for the exam because the teacher required you to take it. (b) Because many students do poorly on the exam, the teacher schedules extra lectures on this material and an additional exam. (c) You think that the exam will be diffi cult, so you study harder. (d) After a great deal of studying, you become more confi dent and believe that you will do well on the exam. (e) Many students mistakenly believed that the exam would be easy (and didn’t study hard), which is why they did so poorly that the teacher scheduled extra lectures. (f) The extra lectures are so well designed that the students now believe that they understand the material, and they like it more.