1. Based on Job characteristics model, discuss how the disengaged employees can be made to engage actively in an organisation? 2. Explain why and what job design approach will attract and engage Millennials and Gen Z employees in modern day organisations?
Learning Objectives • Understand why study job design, flexible work arrangements? • Briefly understand the intrinsic motivation and rewards • What is job design? 4 basic approaches • Explain job characteristics model • Describe socio-technical job design, social information and job design, multiskilling • Understand goal setting and job design • Understand Flexible work arrangements, types, benefits Why Study about Job design, flexible work arrangements??? • Society & nature of workplace is changing • There is a deep appreciation how the job itself promotes motivation • Organisations have moved beyond providing extrinsic rewards • Focus now is on intrinsic rewards that workers get in doing jobs • Hence, - Designing the work to maximise employee outcomes is fundamental - Understanding job design approaches/theories are crucial - The alignment of organisational goals through goal setting is key - Understanding how flexible work arrangement enhance the quality of working lives is important Intrinsic work rewards arise directly as a result of task performance. Intrinsic motivation: The desire to work hard solely for the pleasant experience of task accomplishment • When do people desire intrinsic work rewards? • How can one design jobs for people who want greater intrinsic work rewards? • How can one motivate those people who don’t want intrinsic work rewards? 1. Intrinsic motivation and rewards https://images.app.goo.gl/42xzkzsPLUE7J8WUA • Job • One or more tasks that an individual performs in direct support of an organisation’s production purpose • Job design • Involves Planning and specification of job tasks and work setting designated for their accomplishment • A properly designed job facilitate both task performance and job satisfaction. • Manager’s responsibility is to design jobs that will motivate the employee Individual needs + task attributes + work setting Performance & Satisfaction 2. Job Design There are four main approaches to job design: • Job simplification • Job enlargement • Job rotation • Job enrichment. 3. Job design approaches https://images.app.goo.gl/dGYyZLhaCanoTt617 Job simplification: standardising work procedures and employing people in clearly defined and specialised tasks. (job engineering) Advantages Disadvantages • Increased operating efficiency • Low-skill and low-cost labour • Minimal training requirements • Controlled production quantity • Loss of efficiency due to low quality work • High absenteeism and turnover • Paying high wages to get people to do unpleasant jobs 3.1 Job simplification https://images.app.goo.gl/dpZzzjqYtvxNhhf89 3.2 Job enlargement • Job enlargement: increases task variety by combining tasks of similar skill levels that were previously assigned to separate workers into one job. • The only change in the original job design is that a worker now does a greater variety of tasks. • May add variety and alleviate boredom https://images.app.goo.gl/WHQqJGJWj9nM6AV48 3.3 Job rotation • Job rotation: Involves increasing task variety by periodically shifting workers among jobs involving different tasks at similar levels of skill. • Example: Nurse – geriatric patients, surgical patients, rehabilitation • Efficiency losses (due to changing) are offset by gains in workforce flexibility • New employees are rotated in jobs • Horizontal loading (breath of job increased by adding variety of tasks) vs vertical loading (increase job depth by adding responsibilities such as planning, controlling, that previously done by managers) https://images.app.goo.gl/FT81jFiUCRt7XgfK8 3.4 Job enrichment • Job enrichment: is the practice of building motivating factors into job content. • Seeks to expand job content by adding planning and evaluating duties • Changes increase job ‘depth’ through vertical loading Frederick Herzberg: 7 Principles guiding Herzberg’s approach to job enrichment Note: Each principle is an action guideline designed to increase the presence of one or more motivating factors Potential problems • Lack of job diagnosis prior to redesign • Lack of attention to situational factors • Reports of job enrichment success may have been overstated; lack of rigorous evaluation of outcomes • Lack of attention to individual differences • Lack of application in practice 3.4 Potential Problems in Job enrichment Continuum of job design strategies • The four basic approaches to job design (simplification, enlargement and rotation, and enrichment),have provided vital insights into the complexity of effective job design. • However, the common factor underlying these approaches is that they are ‘static’; that is, they assume that all individuals will respond in the same, positive manner to these approaches. • They fail to recognise the ‘dynamic’ nature of individual behaviour —that workers can, and will, respond in a variety of ways to the implementation of any innovative job design approach. To be effective, a manager needs to be able to understand, identify and predict how an individual worker will respond to any job redesign approach. Drawbacks of Basic Job design approaches • Turner and Lawrence, Hulin and Blood – looked at role of individual differences in job design. How would individuals respond to job redesign? • This question led to the diagnostic approach • Diagnostic approach – a technique developed by Richard Hackman and Greg Oldham, which is the basis of job characteristics model (JCM) • The JCM model addresses job design in a contingency fashion • The diagnostic job design approach, recognises that there will be differences in the way any group of individuals respond to a change in the design of their jobs • Contingency approach that recognises individual differences. 4. Job characteristics model • Five core job characteristics are identified as task attributes of special importance in the diagnosis of job designs. • A job that is high in these core characteristics is said to be enriched. • Five core characteristics in job design: 1. Skill variety (The degree to which the job requires an employee to undertake a variety of different activities and use different skills and talents) 2. Task identity (The degree to which the job requires completion of a ‘whole’ and identifiable piece of work (that is, it involves doing a job from beginning to end with a visible outcome). 3. Task significance (The degree to which the job is important and involves a meaningful contribution to the organisation or society in general) 4. Autonomy (The degree to which the job gives the employee substantial freedom, independence and discretion in scheduling the work and determining the procedures used in carrying it out.) 5. Job feedback. (This is the degree to which carrying out the work activities results in the employee obtaining direct and clear information on how well the job has been done) 4.1 Job characteristics model – JCM (Hackman and Oldham) • Secondly, Hackman and Oldham refer to critical psychological states which must be realised for people to develop intrinsic work motivation. These are: 1. experienced meaningfulness in the work 2. experienced responsibility for the outcomes of the work 3. knowledge of actual results of the work activities. • These psychological states represent intrinsic rewards that are believed to occur and influence later performance and satisfaction when the core job characteristics are present in the job design. 4.2 Job characteristics model – JCM (Hackman and Oldham) Critical psychological states & Work Outcomes 4.3 Job characteristics model – JCM (Hackman and Oldham) Individual Differences • The job characteristics model recognises that the five core job characteristics do not affect all people in the same way. • Unlike many earlier theories of job design, the job characteristics model recognises individual differences in response to changes in job design. • A number of factors will influence the manner in which any individual employee responds to changes in the design of his or her job. • These factors are called ‘job design moderators’. - Growth need strength - Knowledge and Skill - Context Satisfaction • Individual differences moderate the influence of core characteristics: • Growth-need strength (people high in growth need will respond positively; low growth – will feel anxiety to enriched jobs) – Maslows, Alderfer • Knowledge and skill (competency/self efficacy respond positively) • Context satisfaction. (Herzberg: those satisfied with salary levels, supervision and working conditions are more likely than their dissatisfied colleagues to support job enrichment) • If there is a match between individual capabilities and enriched job requirements positive feelings and performance gains (and vice versa). 4.3 Job characteristics model – JCM (Hackman and Oldham) Individual Differences • Job diagnostic survey: – Questionnaire used to examine each dimension of job characteristics model. • Motivating potential score: – Summary of job’s overall potential for motivating worker. MPS = (variety + identity = significance)/3 x autonomy x feedback 4.4 JCM - Testing and motivating potential score 4.5 Implementing the job characteristics model 5 Socio-technical job design • Technology can sometimes constrain the ability to enrich jobs. • Socio-technical job design recognises this problem and seeks to optimise the relationship between the technology system and the social system. • This is achieved by designing work roles that integrate with the technology system. • Changing existing technology and work practices is difficult and costly most effective in new sites. • Gerald Salancik and Jeffrey Pfeffer question whether jobs have stable and objective characteristics that individuals perceive and to which they respond predictably and consistently. • The social information processing approach argues that individual needs, task perceptions and reactions are the result of socially constructed realities. • Social information in the workplace influences workers perceptions of the job and their responses to it. 6. Social Information and job design • Multiskilling: employees acquire array of skills needed to perform multiple tasks in an organisational production or customer service process. • The cross-training and multiskilling of employees allow them to assume broader responsibilities so they are better equipped to solve problems • In an environment that fosters multiskilling there is always someone who can take over a role. • Has helped improve organisational performance by 30 to 40 per cent in some cases. 7. Multiskilling • Goal-setting is linked to job design and motivation and performance • Goal-setting: Process of developing, negotiating and formalising an employee’s targets and objectives. • Goals should be challenging and specific, and should incorporate task feedback. • Goals foster high performance when: • individuals have ability and self-efficacy • goals are accepted & there is commitment to them. 8. Goal-Setting Theory (Locke and Latham) 8.1 Locke and Latham – Goal-Setting Framework MBO involves managers working with their employees to establish performance goals and plans that are consistent with higher-level work unit and organisational objectives 8.2 Goal setting and MBO (Managing by Objectives) Notice how joint supervisor–employee discussions are designed to extend participation from the point of initial goal establishment to the point of evaluating results in terms of goal attainment. • The concept of individual goal setting has been further developed over the past few years to introduce the concept of key performance indicators (KPIs) • Key performance indicators (KPIs): standards against which individual and organisational performance can be measured. • Important in organisational benchmarking. • Link between KPIs and SMART goals i.e. Specific, Measurable, Achievable, Realistic and Time-bound. • KPIs